# Azerbaijanis

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Turkic ethnic group

Not to be confused with [Azaris](/source/Azaris).

Ethnic group

Azerbaijanis Azərbaycanlılar آذربایجانلیلار Azerbaijani girls in traditional dresses, 1997 Total population 30–35 million[1] (2002) Regions with significant populations Iran 12–23 million[11] Azerbaijan 8,172,800[12] Russia 603,070[13] Turkey 530,000–2 million[14][1] Georgia 233,178[15] Kazakhstan 155,364[16] Ukraine 45,176[17] Uzbekistan 44,400[18] Turkmenistan 33,365[19] United States 24,377[20][21] Germany 20,000–30,000[22] Netherlands 18,000[23] Kyrgyzstan 17,823[24] France 70,000[25] Canada 9,915[26] Portugal 8,000[27][28][29] United Arab Emirates 7,000[30] United Kingdom 6,220[31] Belarus 5,567[32] Sweden 2,935[33] Latvia 1,567–2,032[34][35] Australia 1,036[36] Austria 1,000[37] Estonia 940[38] Norway 806[39] Lithuania 648[40] South Korea 608[41] Italy 552[42] Languages Azerbaijani (native) Persian, Turkish Religion Predominantly Shia Islam,[43] minority Sunni Islam Related ethnic groups Turkish people,[44] Turkmen people,[45] and Iranian peoples[46]

Part of a series on Azerbaijanis Culture Architecture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Dress Literature Media Music Folklore Religion Sport Theatre Tourism Traditional areas of settlement Iran (Iranian Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan Russia (Derbent) Georgia Armenia Turkey (Kars, Iğdır) Diaspora Belarus Canada France Germany Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Russia Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan United Kingdom United States Religion Islam Christianity Judaism Zoroastrianism Yarsanism Pre-Abrahamic religions Language Azerbaijani Persecution March Days Deportations from Armenia Gugark pogrom Black January Khojaly massacre Azerbaijan Portal v t e

**Azerbaijanis** ([/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒæni, -ɑːni/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English); [Azerbaijani](/source/Azerbaijani_language): *Azərbaycanlılar*, آذربایجانلیلار), **Azeris** or **Azerbaijani Turks** (*Azərbaycan türkləri*, آذربایجان تۆرکلری)[47][48][49] are a [Turkic](/source/Turkic_peoples) ethnic group living mainly in the [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran)) region of northwestern [Iran](/source/Iran) and the [Republic of Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan). They are the largest ethnic group in the Republic of Azerbaijan and the second-largest ethnic group in neighboring Iran and [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)).[50] They speak the [Azerbaijani language](/source/Azerbaijani_language), belonging to the [Oghuz](/source/Oghuz_languages) branch of the [Turkic languages](/source/Turkic_languages), and predominantly practice [Shia Islam](/source/Shia_Islam).[43]

Following the [Russo-Persian Wars](/source/Russo-Persian_Wars) of [1813](/source/Russo-Persian_War_(1804%E2%80%931813)) and [1828](/source/Russo-Persian_War_(1826%E2%80%931828)), the territories of [Qajar Iran](/source/Qajar_Iran) in the [Caucasus](/source/Caucasus) were ceded to the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire) and the [treaties of Gulistan](/source/Treaty_of_Gulistan) in 1813 and [Turkmenchay](/source/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay) in 1828 finalized the borders between Russia and Iran.[51][52] After more than 80 years of being under the Russian Empire in the Caucasus, the [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/source/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic) was established in 1918 which defined the territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan.

## Etymology

Azerbaijan is believed to be named after *[Atropates](/source/Atropates)*, a [Persian](/source/Persian_people)[53][54][55] [satrap](/source/Satrap) (governor) who ruled in *[Atropatene](/source/Atropatene)* (modern [Iranian Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran))) circa 321 [BC](/source/Before_Common_Era).[56][57]: 2 The name *Atropates* is the Hellenistic form of [Old Persian](/source/Old_Persian) *Aturpat* which means 'guardian of [fire](/source/Atar)'[58] itself a compound of *ātūr* () 'fire' (later *āður* (آذر) in [(early) New Persian](/source/New_Persian), and is pronounced *āzar* today)[59] + *-pat* () suffix for -guardian, -lord, -master[59] (*-pat* in early [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian), *-bod* (بُد) in New Persian).

Present-day name *Azerbaijan* is the [Arabicized](/source/Arabization) form of *Āzarpāyegān* ([Persian](/source/Persian_language): آذرپایگان) meaning 'the guardians of [fire](/source/Atar)' later becoming *Azerbaijan* (Persian: آذربایجان) due to the phonemic shift from /p/ to /b/ and /g/ to /dʒ/ which is a result of the medieval Arabic influences that followed the [Arab invasion of Iran](/source/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia), and is due to the lack of the phoneme /p/ and /g/ in the [Arabic language](/source/Arabic_language).[60] The word *Azarpāyegān* itself is ultimately from Old Persian *Āturpātakān* (Persian: آتورپاتکان)[61][62] meaning 'the land associated with (satrap) Aturpat' or 'the land of fire guardians' (*-an*, in its postvocalic form *-kān*, is a suffix for association or forming adverbs and plurals;[59] e.g.: [Gilan](/source/Gilan) 'land associated with [Gil people](/source/Gilites)').[63]

### Ethnonym

See also: [Azerbaijan (toponym)](/source/Azerbaijan_(toponym))

The modern ethnonym "Azerbaijani" or "Azeri" refers to the Turkic peoples of [Iran](/source/Iran)'s northwestern historic region of [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran)) (also known as Iranian Azerbaijan) and the Republic of [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan).[64] They historically called themselves or were referred to by others as Muslims and/or Turks. They were also referred to as [Ajam](/source/Ajam) (meaning from Iran), using the term incorrectly to denote their Shia belief rather than ethnic identity.[65] When the [Southern Caucasus](/source/Transcaucasia) became part of the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire) in the nineteenth century, the Russian authorities, who traditionally referred to all [Turkic people](/source/Turkic_peoples) as [Tatars](/source/Tatars), defined Tatars living in the Transcaucasus region as Caucasian Tatars or more rarely[66] Aderbeijanskie (Адербейджанские) Tatars or even[67] Persian Tatars in order to distinguish them from other Turkic groups and the [Persian](/source/Persian_language) speakers of Iran.[67][68] The Russian *[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary](/source/Brockhaus_and_Efron_Encyclopedic_Dictionary)*, written in the 1890s, also referred to Tatars in Azerbaijan as Aderbeijans (адербейджаны),[69] but noted that the term had not been widely adopted.[70] This ethnonym was also used by [Joseph Deniker](/source/Joseph_Deniker) in 1900.[71] In Azerbaijani language publications, the expression "Azerbaijani nation" referring to those who were known as Tatars of the Caucasus first appeared in the newspaper *Kashkul* in 1880.[72]

During the early [Soviet](/source/Soviet_Union) period, the term "Transcaucasian [Tatars](/source/Tatars)" was supplanted by "Azerbaijani Turks" and ultimately "Azerbaijanis."[73][74][75] For some time afterwards, the term "Azerbaijanis" was then applied to all Turkic-speaking Muslims in Transcaucasia, from the [Meskhetian Turks](/source/Meskhetian_Turks) in southwestern [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)), to the [Terekemes](/source/Terekeme) of southern [Dagestan](/source/Dagestan), as well as assimilated [Tats](/source/Tat_people_(Caucasus)) and [Talysh](/source/Talysh_people).[74] The temporary designation of Meskhetian Turks as "Azerbaijanis" was most likely related to the existing administrative framework of the [Transcaucasian SFSR](/source/Transcaucasian_SFSR), as the [Azerbaijan SSR](/source/Azerbaijan_SSR) was one of its founding members.[76] After the establishment of the Azerbaijan SSR,[77] on the order of Soviet leader [Stalin](/source/Stalin), the "name of the formal language" of the Azerbaijan SSR was also "changed from Turkic to Azerbaijani".[77]

Among [post-Soviet](/source/Post-Soviet) Azerbaijanis, the term "Azeri" usually provokes a negative reaction.[78]

### Exonym

The [Chechen](/source/Chechen_language) and [Ingush](/source/Ingush_language) names for Azerbaijanis[a] are *Ghezloy*/*Ghoazloy* (ГӀезлой/ГӀоазлой) and *Ghazaroy*/*Ghazharey* (ГӀажарой/ГӀажарей). The former goes back to the name of [Qizilbash](/source/Qizilbash) while the latter goes back to the name of [Qajars](/source/Qajars), having presumably emerged in Chechen and Ingush languages during the [reign of Qajars in Iran](/source/Qajar_Iran) in the 18th–19th centuries.[80]

## History

Main articles: [History of Azerbaijan](/source/History_of_Azerbaijan) and [Azerbaijan (Iran) § History](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran)#History)

Ancient residents of the area, known as [Azaris](/source/Azaris), spoke [Old Azeri](/source/Old_Azeri) from the [Iranian](/source/Iranian_languages) branch of the [Indo-European languages](/source/Indo-European_languages).[81] In the 11th century AD with Seljuq conquests, [Oghuz Turkic](/source/Oghuz_Turks) tribes started moving across the Iranian Plateau into the Caucasus and Anatolia. The influx of the Oghuz and other [Turkmen](/source/Turkoman_(ethnonym)) tribes was further accentuated by the Mongol invasion.[82] These Turkmen tribes spread as smaller groups, a number of which settled down in the Caucasus and Iran, resulting in the [Turkification](/source/Turkification) of the local population. Over time they converted to [Shia Islam](/source/Shia_Islam) and gradually absorbed [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran)) and [Shirvan](/source/Shirvan).[83]

### Ancient period

[Caucasian-speaking](/source/Caucasian_Albanian_language) [Albanian](/source/Caucasian_Albania) tribes are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of the region in the north of Aras river, where the Republic of Azerbaijan is located.[84] The region also saw [Scythian](/source/Scythia) settlement in the ninth century BC, following which the [Medes](/source/Medes) came to dominate the area to the south of the [Aras River](/source/Aras_River).[85]

[Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) defeated the Achaemenids in 330 BC, but allowed the Median satrap Atropates to remain in power. Following the decline of the [Seleucids](/source/Seleucid) in Persia in 247 BC, an [Armenian Kingdom](/source/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)) exercised control over parts of [Caucasian Albania](/source/Caucasian_Albania).[86] Caucasian Albanians established a kingdom in the first century BC and largely remained independent until the [Persian Sassanids](/source/Sassanid_Empire) made their kingdom a [vassal state](/source/Vassal_state) in 252 AD.[2]: 38 Caucasian Albania's ruler, King [Urnayr](/source/Urnayr), went to Armenia and then officially adopted [Christianity](/source/Christianity) as the state religion in the fourth century AD, and Albania remained a Christian state until the 8th century.[87][88]

### Medieval period

Sassanid control ended with their defeat by the [Rashidun Caliphate](/source/Rashidun_Caliphate) in 642 AD through the [Muslim conquest of Persia](/source/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia).[89] The Arabs made Caucasian Albania a vassal state after the Christian resistance, led by Prince [Javanshir](/source/Javanshir), surrendered in 667.[2]: 71 Between the ninth and tenth centuries, Arab authors began to refer to the region between the [Kura](/source/Kura_(Caspian_Sea)) and [Aras](/source/Aras_River) rivers as *[Arran](/source/Arran_(Azerbaijan))*.[2]: 20 During this time, Arabs from [Basra](/source/Basra) and [Kufa](/source/Kufa) came to Azerbaijan and seized lands that indigenous peoples had abandoned; the Arabs became a land-owning elite.[90]: 48 Conversion to Islam was slow as local resistance persisted for centuries and resentment grew as small groups of Arabs began migrating to cities such as [Tabriz](/source/Tabriz) and [Maraghah](/source/Maraghah). This influx sparked a major rebellion in [Iranian Azerbaijan](/source/Azarbaijan_(Iran)) from 816 to 837, led by an Iranian [Zoroastrian](/source/Zoroastrian) commoner named [Babak Khorramdin](/source/Babak_Khorramdin).[91] However, despite pockets of continued resistance, the majority of the inhabitants of Azerbaijan converted to Islam. Later, in the 10th and 11th centuries, parts of Azerbaijan were ruled by the [Kurdish](/source/Kurdish_people) dynasty of [Shaddadid](/source/Shaddadid) and [Arab](/source/Arab_people) [Radawids](/source/Rawadid_dynasty).

Territorial extent of the [Seljuk Empire](/source/Seljuk_Empire) in 1090, stretching from [Karakum Desert](/source/Karakum_Desert) to modern-day [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan)

In the middle of the eleventh century, the [Seljuq](/source/Seljuk_Turks) dynasty overthrew Arab rule and established an empire that encompassed most of [Southwest Asia](/source/Southwest_Asia). The Seljuk period marked the influx of [Oghuz](/source/Oghuz_Turks) nomads into the region. The emerging dominance of the Turkic language was chronicled in epic poems or *dastans*, the oldest being the *[Book of Dede Korkut](/source/Book_of_Dede_Korkut)*, which relate [allegorical](/source/Allegory) tales about the early Turks in the Caucasus and [Asia Minor](/source/Asia_Minor).[2]: 45 Turkic dominion was interrupted by the [Mongols](/source/Mongol_Empire) in 1227, but it returned with the [Timurids](/source/Timurid_dynasty) and then [Sunni](/source/Sunni) [Qara Qoyunlū](/source/Kara_Koyunlu) (Black Sheep Turkmen) and [Aq Qoyunlū](/source/Aq_Qoyunlu) (White Sheep Turkmen), who dominated Azerbaijan, large parts of Iran, eastern Anatolia, and other minor parts of West Asia, until the [Shi'a](/source/Shi'a_Islam) [Safavids](/source/Safavid_dynasty) took power in 1501.[2]: 113[90]: 285

### Early modern period

See also: [Treaty of Gulistan](/source/Treaty_of_Gulistan) and [Treaty of Turkmenchay](/source/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay)

Shirvan Tatar (i.e. Azerbaijani). Engraving from book of Jean Baptiste Benoît Eyriès. Voyage pittoresque en Asie et en Afrique: résumé général des voyages anciens et modernes... T. I, 1839

The [Safavids](/source/Safavids), who rose from around [Ardabil](/source/Ardabil) in Iranian Azerbaijan and lasted until 1722, established the foundations of the modern Iranian state.[92] The Safavids, alongside their [Ottoman](/source/Ottoman_Turks) archrivals, dominated the entire West Asian region and beyond for centuries. At its peak under [Shah Abbas the Great](/source/Shah_Abbas_I), it rivaled its political and ideological archrival the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) in military strength. Noted for achievements in state-building, architecture, and the sciences, the Safavid state crumbled due to internal decay (mostly royal intrigues), ethnic minority uprisings and external pressures from the [Russians](/source/Russian_Empire), and the eventually opportunistic [Afghans](/source/Hotaki), who would mark the end of the dynasty. The Safavids encouraged and spread Shi'a Islam, as well as the arts and culture, and Shah [Abbas the Great](/source/Abbas_I_of_Persia) created an intellectual atmosphere that according to some scholars was a new "golden age".[93] He reformed the government and the military and responded to the needs of the common people.[93]

After the Safavid state disintegrated, it was followed by the conquest by [Nader Shah Afshar](/source/Nader_Shah_Afshar), a Shia chieftain from [Khorasan](/source/Khorasan_Province) who reduced the power of the ghulat Shi'a and empowered a moderate form of Shi'ism,[90]: 300 and, exceptionally noted for his military genius, making Iran reach its greatest extent since the [Sassanid Empire](/source/Sassanid_Empire). The brief reign of [Karim Khan](/source/Karim_Khan) came next, followed by the [Qajars](/source/Qajar_dynasty), who ruled what is the present-day Azerbaijan Republic and Iran from 1779.[2]: 106 Russia loomed as a threat to Persian and Turkish holdings in the Caucasus in this period. The [Russo-Persian Wars](/source/Russo-Persian_Wars), despite already having had minor military conflicts in the 17th century, officially began in the eighteenth century and ended in the early nineteenth century with the [Treaty of Gulistan](/source/Treaty_of_Gulistan) of 1813 and the [Treaty of Turkmenchay](/source/Treaty_of_Turkmenchay) in 1828, which ceded the Caucasian portion of Qajar Iran to the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire).[57]: 17 While Azerbaijanis in Iran integrated into Iranian society, Azerbaijanis who used to live in Aran, were incorporated into the Russian Empire.

"Young noble Tatar," by [Vasily Vereshchagin](/source/Vasily_Vereshchagin). [Shusha](/source/Shusha), 1865

Despite the Russian conquest, throughout the entire 19th century, preoccupation with [Iranian culture](/source/Culture_of_Iran), [literature](/source/Literature_of_Iran), and language remained widespread amongst Shia and Sunni intellectuals in the Russian-held cities of [Baku](/source/Baku), [Ganja](/source/Ganja%2C_Azerbaijan) and Tiflis ([Tbilisi](/source/Tbilisi), now Georgia).[94] Within the same century, in post-Iranian Russian-held East Caucasia, an [Azerbaijani national identity](/source/Azerbaijani_national_identity) emerged at the end of the 19th century.[95] In 1891, the idea of recognizing oneself as an "Azerbaijani Turk" was first popularized amongst the Caucasus Tatars in the periodical *Kashkül*.[96] The articles printed in *Kaspiy* and *Kashkül* in 1891 are typically credited as being the earliest expressions of a cultural Azerbaijani identity.[97]

Modernisation—compared to the neighboring [Armenians](/source/Armenians) and [Georgians](/source/Georgians)—was slow to develop amongst the Tatars of the Russian Caucasus. According to the 1897 [Russian Empire census](/source/Russian_Empire_census), less than five percent of the Tatars were able to read or write. The intellectual and newspaper editor [Ali bey Huseynzade](/source/Ali_bey_Huseynzade) (1864–1940) led a campaign to 'Turkify, Islamise, modernise' the Caucasian Tatars, whereas [Mammed Said Ordubadi](/source/Mammed_Said_Ordubadi) (1872–1950), another journalist and activist, criticized superstition amongst Muslims.[98]

### Modern period in Republic of Azerbaijan

Map of [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/source/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic) presented by the Azerbaijani delegation [Paris Peace Conference](/source/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919) in 1919.

First flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (until 9 November 1918)[99]

Soldiers and officers of the army of [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/source/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic) in 1918

After the collapse of the Russian Empire during [World War I](/source/World_War_I), the short-lived [Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic](/source/Transcaucasian_Democratic_Federative_Republic) was declared, constituting what are the present-day republics of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. This was followed by [March Days](/source/March_Days) massacres[100][101] that took place between 30 March and 2 April 1918 in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the [Baku Governorate](/source/Baku_Governorate) of the [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire).[102] When the republic dissolved in May 1918, the leading [Musavat party](/source/Musavat) adopted the name "Azerbaijan" for the newly established [Azerbaijan Democratic Republic](/source/Azerbaijan_Democratic_Republic), which was proclaimed on 27 May 1918,[103] for political reasons,[104][105] even though the name of "Azerbaijan" had been used to refer to the [adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran](/source/Iranian_Azerbaijan).[106][107] The ADR was the first modern [parliamentary republic](/source/Parliamentary_republic) in the Turkic world and [Muslim world](/source/Muslim_world).[100][108][109] Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women, making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men.[108] Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of [Baku State University](/source/Baku_State_University), which was the first modern-type university founded in Muslim East.[108]

By March 1920, it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack the much-needed Baku. [Vladimir Lenin](/source/Vladimir_Lenin) said that the invasion was justified as [Soviet Russia](/source/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) could not survive without Baku's [oil](/source/Petroleum).[110][111] Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the [Bolshevik](/source/Bolshevik) [11th Soviet Red Army](/source/11th_Soviet_Red_Army) invaded it, establishing the [Azerbaijan SSR](/source/Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in [Karabakh](/source/Karabakh), Azeris did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest.[112]

The brief independence gained by the short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918–1920 was followed by over 70 years of [Soviet rule](/source/Soviet_Union).[113]: 91 Nevertheless, it was in the early Soviet period that the Azerbaijani national identity was forged.[95] After the restoration of independence in October 1991, the Republic of Azerbaijan became embroiled in a war with neighboring Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region.[113]: 97

The [First Nagorno-Karabakh War](/source/First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War) resulted in the displacement of approximately 725,000 Azerbaijanis and 300,000–500,000 Armenians from both Azerbaijan and Armenia.[114] As a result of the [2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war](/source/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_war), Azerbaijan took control of 5 cities, 4 towns, 286 villages in the region.[115] According to the [2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement](/source/2020_Nagorno-Karabakh_ceasefire_agreement), internally displaced persons and refugees shall return to the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh and adjacent areas under the supervision of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.[116]

### Modern period in Iran

[Sattar Khan](/source/Sattar_Khan) (1868–1914) was a major [revolutionary](/source/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution) figure in the late [Qajar](/source/Qajar_dynasty) period in Iran.

In Iran, Azerbaijanis such as [Sattar Khan](/source/Sattar_Khan) sought constitutional reform.[117] The [Persian Constitutional Revolution](/source/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution) of 1906–11 shook the Qajar dynasty. A parliament (*Majlis*) was founded on the efforts of the constitutionalists, and pro-democracy newspapers appeared. The last Shah of the Qajar dynasty was soon removed in a military coup led by [Reza Khan](/source/Reza_Khan). In the quest to impose national homogeneity on a country where half of the population were ethnic minorities, Reza Shah banned in quick succession the use of the Azerbaijani language in schools, theatrical performances, religious ceremonies, and books.[118]

Upon the dethronement of Reza Shah in September 1941, Soviet forces [took control](/source/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran) of [Iranian Azerbaijan](/source/Iranian_Azerbaijan) and helped to set up the [Azerbaijan People's Government](/source/Azerbaijan_People's_Government), a [client state](/source/Client_state) under the leadership of [Sayyid Jafar Pishevari](/source/Sayyid_Jafar_Pishevari) backed by [Soviet Azerbaijan](/source/Soviet_Azerbaijan). The Soviet military presence in Iranian Azerbaijan was mainly aimed at securing the [Allied](/source/Allies_of_World_War_II) supply route during [World War II](/source/World_War_II). Concerned with the continued Soviet presence after World War II, the United States and Britain pressured the Soviets to withdraw by [late 1946](/source/Iran_crisis_of_1946). Immediately thereafter, the Iranian government regained control of Iranian Azerbaijan. According to Professor Gary R. Hess, local Azerbaijanis favored the Iranian rule, while the Soviets forewent the Iranian Azerbaijan due to the exaggerated sentiment for autonomy and oil being their top priority.[119]

## Origins

Main article: [Origin of the Azerbaijanis](/source/Origin_of_the_Azerbaijanis)

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In many references, Azerbaijanis are designated as a [Turkic people](/source/Turkic_peoples),[44][120] while some sources describe the origin of Azerbaijanis as "unclear",[121] mainly Caucasian,[122] mainly Iranian,[123][124] mixed [Caucasian Albanian](/source/Caucasian_Albania) and Turkish,[125] and mixed with Caucasian, Iranian, and Turkic elements.[126] Russian historian and orientalist [Vladimir Minorsky](/source/Vladimir_Minorsky) writes that largely Iranian and Caucasian populations became Turkic-speaking following the Oghuz occupation of the region, though the characteristic features of the local Turkic language, such as Persian intonations and disregard of the vocalic harmony, were a remnant of the non-Turkic population.[127]

[Toghrul III](/source/Toghrul_III) (center), last ruler of the Seljuks, an empire founded by [Oghuz Turks](/source/Oghuz_Turks) of the [Seljuk Oghuz clan](/source/Seljuk_dynasty)

Historical research suggests that the [Old Azeri language](/source/Old_Azeri), belonging to the Northwestern branch of the Iranian languages and believed to have descended from the language of the Medes,[128] gradually gained currency and was widely spoken in said region for many centuries.[129][130][131][132][133]

Some Azerbaijanis of the Republic of Azerbaijan are believed to be descended from the inhabitants of [Caucasian Albania](/source/Caucasian_Albania), an ancient country located in the eastern [Caucasus](/source/Caucasus) region, and various Iranian peoples which settled the region.[134] They claim there is evidence that, due to repeated invasions and migrations, the aboriginal Caucasian population may have gradually been culturally and linguistically assimilated, first by Iranian peoples, such as the [Persians](/source/Persian_people),[135] and later by the [Oghuz Turks](/source/Oghuz_Turks). Considerable information has been learned about the Caucasian Albanians, including [their language](/source/Caucasian_Albanian_language), history, early conversion to [Christianity](/source/Christianity), and relations with the [Armenians](/source/Armenians) and [Georgians](/source/Georgians), under whose strong religious and cultural influence the Caucasian Albanians came in the coming centuries.[136][137]

### Turkic origin and Turkification

See also: [Turkification](/source/Turkification)

Turkification of the non-Turkic population derives from the Turkic settlements in the area now known as Azerbaijan, which began and accelerated during the [Seljuk](/source/Seljuk_Turks) period.[44] The migration of Oghuz Turks from present-day [Turkmenistan](/source/Turkmenistan), which is attested by linguistic similarity, remained high through the Mongol period, as many troops under the [Ilkhanids](/source/Ilkhanids) were Turkic. By the [Safavid](/source/Safavid) period, the Turkic nature of Azerbaijan increased with the influence of the [Qizilbash](/source/Qizilbash), an association of the [Turkoman](/source/Turkoman_(ethnonym))[138] nomadic tribes that was the backbone of the Safavid Empire.

According to Soviet scholars, the Turkicization of Azerbaijan was largely completed during the Ilkhanid period. Faruk Sümer posits three periods in which Turkicization took place: Seljuk, Mongol and Post-Mongol (Qara Qoyunlu, Aq Qoyunlu and Safavid). In the first two, Oghuz Turkic tribes advanced or were driven to Anatolia and Arran. In the last period, the Turkic elements in Iran (Oghuz, with lesser admixtures of Uyghur, Qipchaq, Qarluq as well as Turkicized Mongols) were joined now by Anatolian Turks migrating back to Iran. This marked the final stage of Turkicization.[44]

### Iranian origin

Main articles: [Iranian peoples](/source/Iranian_peoples), [Persian peoples](/source/Persian_peoples), [Tat people (Iran)](/source/Tat_people_(Iran)), and [Tat people (Caucasus)](/source/Tat_people_(Caucasus))

10th-century Arab historian [Al-Masudi](/source/Al-Masudi) attested the [Old Azeri](/source/Old_Azeri) language and described that the region of [Azerbaijan](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran)) was inhabited by [Persians](/source/Persians).[139] Archaeological evidence indicates that the Iranian religion of [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism) was prominent throughout the Caucasus before Christianity and Islam.[140][141][142] According to [Encyclopaedia Iranica](/source/Encyclopaedia_Iranica), Azerbaijanis mainly originate from the earlier Iranian speakers, who still exist to this day in smaller numbers, and a massive migration of Oghuz Turks in the 11th and 12th centuries gradually Turkified Azerbaijan as well as Anatolia.[143]

### Caucasian origin

Main articles: [Peoples of the Caucasus](/source/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus) and [Caucasian Albania](/source/Caucasian_Albania)

Azerbaijani girl from [Shusha](/source/Shusha) in silk national garments

According to Encyclopædia Britannica, the Azerbaijanis are of mixed descent, originating in the indigenous population of eastern Transcaucasia and possibly the Medians from northern Iran.[144] There is evidence that, due to repeated invasions and migrations, aboriginal [Caucasians](/source/Caucasian_Albania) may have been culturally assimilated, first by [Ancient Iranian peoples](/source/Ancient_Iranian_peoples) and later by the Oghuz. Considerable information has been learned about the Caucasian Albanians including their language, history, early conversion to [Christianity](/source/Christianity). The [Udi language](/source/Udi_language), still spoken in Azerbaijan, may be a remnant of the Albanians' language.[145]

### Genetics

See also: [Genetic history of the Middle East](/source/Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East) and [Genetic history of Europe](/source/Genetic_history_of_Europe)

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Contemporary Western Asian genomes, a region that includes Azerbaijan, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed.[146] However, as of 2017, there is no [whole genome sequencing](/source/Whole_genome_sequencing) study for Azerbaijan; sampling limitations such as these prevent forming a "finer-scale picture of the genetic history of the region".[146]

A 2014 study comparing the genetics of the populations from Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, (which were grouped as "Western [Silk Road](/source/Silk_Road)") Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan (grouped as "Eastern Silk Road") found that the samples from Azerbaijan were the only group from the Western Silk Road to show significant contribution from the Eastern Silk Road, despite the overall clustering with the other samples from the Western Silk Road. The eastern input into the Azerbaijani genetics was estimated to be roughly 25 generations ago, corresponding to the time of the [Mongolian expansion](/source/Mongol_invasions_and_conquests).[147]

A 2002 study focusing on eleven Y-chromosome markers suggested that Azerbaijanis are genetically more related to their Caucasian geographic neighbors than to their linguistic neighbors.[148] Iranian Azerbaijanis are genetically more similar to northern Azerbaijanis and the neighboring Turkic population than they are to geographically distant Turkmen populations.[149] Iranian-speaking populations from Azerbaijan (the [Talysh](/source/Talysh_people) and [Tats](/source/Tat_people_(Caucasus))) are genetically closer to Azerbaijanis of the Republic than to other Iranian-speaking populations ([Persian people](/source/Persian_people) and [Kurds](/source/Kurds) from Iran, [Ossetians](/source/Ossetians), and [Tajiks](/source/Tajiks)).[150] Several genetic studies suggested that the Azerbaijanis originate from a native population long resident in the area who adopted a Turkic language through [language replacement](/source/Language_shift), including possibility of elite dominance scenario.[151][152][148] However, the language replacement in Azerbaijan (and in Turkey) might not have been in accordance with the elite dominance model, with estimated Central Asian contribution to Azerbaijan being 18% for females and 32% for males.[153] A subsequent study also suggested 33% Central Asian contribution to Azerbaijan.[154]

A 2001 study which looked into the first [hypervariable segment](/source/Hypervariable_region) of the [MtDNA](/source/MtDNA) suggested that "genetic relationships among Caucasus populations reflect geographical rather than linguistic relationships", with Armenians and Azerbaijanis being "most closely related to their nearest geographical neighbours".[155] Another 2004 study that looked into 910 MtDNAs from 23 populations in the Iranian plateau, the Indus Valley, and Central Asia suggested that populations "west of the Indus basin, including those from Iran, Anatolia [Turkey] and the Caucasus, exhibit a common mtDNA lineage composition, consisting mainly of western Eurasian lineages, with a very limited contribution from South Asia and eastern Eurasia".[156] While genetic analysis of mtDNA indicates that Caucasian populations are genetically closer to Europeans than to Near Easterners, Y-chromosome results indicate closer affinity to Near Eastern groups.[148]

The range of haplogroups across the region may reflect historical genetic admixture,[157] perhaps as a result of invasive male migrations.[148]

In a comparative study (2013) on the complete mitochondrial DNA diversity in Iranians has indicated that Iranian Azeris are more related to the people of [Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country)), than they are to other [Iranians](/source/Iranian_peoples), as well as to [Armenians](/source/Armenians). However the same [multidimensional scaling](/source/Multidimensional_scaling) plot shows that Azeris from the Caucasus, despite their supposed common origin with Iranian Azeris, "occupy an intermediate position between the Azeris/Georgians and Turks/Iranians grouping".[158]

A 2007 study which looked into class two [Human leukocyte antigen](/source/Human_leukocyte_antigen) suggested that there were "no close genetic relationship was observed between Azeris of Iran and the people of Turkey or Central Asians".[159] A 2017 study which looked into HLA [alleles](/source/Allele) put the samples from Azeris in Northwest Iran "in the Mediterranean cluster close to Kurds, Gorgan, Chuvash (South Russia, towards North Caucasus), Iranians and Caucasus populations (Svan and Georgians)". This Mediterranean stock includes "Turkish and Caucasian populations". Azeri samples were also in a "position between Mediterranean and Central Asian" samples, suggesting Turkification "process caused by Oghuz Turkic tribes could also contribute to the genetic background of Azeri people".[160] In a 2019 study examining genome-wide data from selected populations in North Africa and West Eurasia, Azeris were grouped with [Balkars](/source/Balkars), [Circassians](/source/Circassians), [Georgians](/source/Georgians), [Lezgins](/source/Lezgins), and [Turkish people](/source/Turkish_people).[161]

## Demographics and society

See also: [Demographics of Azerbaijan](/source/Demographics_of_Azerbaijan), [Demographics of Iran](/source/Demographics_of_Iran), and [List of Azerbaijanis](/source/List_of_Azerbaijanis)

Azerbaijani-speaking regions

Russian Empire postcard depicting Tatars (i.e. Azerbaijanis) from Alexandropol (Gyumri)

The vast majority of Azerbaijanis live in the Republic of Azerbaijan and [Iranian Azerbaijan](/source/Azarbaijan_(Iran)). Between 12 and 23 million Azerbaijanis live in Iran,[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] mainly in the northwestern provinces. Approximately 9.1 million Azerbaijanis are found in the Republic of Azerbaijan. A diaspora of over a million is spread throughout the rest of the world. According to [Ethnologue](/source/Ethnologue), there are over 1 million speakers of the northern Azerbaijani dialect in southern [Dagestan](/source/Republic_of_Dagestan), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russian proper, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.[162] No Azerbaijanis were recorded in the 2001 census in Armenia,[163] where the [Nagorno-Karabakh conflict](/source/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict) resulted in population shifts. Other sources, such as national censuses, confirm the presence of Azerbaijanis throughout the other states of the former [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union).

### In the Republic of Azerbaijan

See also: [Wedding tradition in Azerbaijan](/source/Wedding_tradition_in_Azerbaijan)

Azerbaijanis are by far the largest ethnic group in The Republic of Azerbaijan (over 90%), holding the second-largest community of ethnic Azerbaijanis after neighboring Iran. The literacy rate is very high, and is estimated at 99.5%.[164] Azerbaijan began the twentieth century with institutions based upon those of Russia and the Soviet Union, with an official policy of atheism and strict state control over most aspects of society. Since independence, there is a secular system.

Azerbaijan has benefited from the oil industry, but high levels of corruption have prevented greater prosperity for the population.[165] Despite these problems, there is a financial rebirth in Azerbaijan as positive economic predictions and an active political opposition appear determined to improve the lives of average Azerbaijanis.[166][167]

### In Iran

Main article: [Iranian Azerbaijanis](/source/Iranian_Azerbaijanis)

[Ashiks](/source/Ashik) performance in [Tabriz](/source/Tabriz)

Iran's former highest-ranking official, the [supreme leader](/source/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran) [Ali Khamenei](/source/Ali_Khamenei), was Iranian Azeri on his father's side.

The exact number of Azerbaijanis in Iran is heavily disputed. Since the early twentieth century, successive Iranian governments have avoided publishing statistics on ethnic groups.[168] Unofficial population estimates of Azerbaijanis in Iran are around the 16% area put forth by the CIA and Library of Congress.[169][170] An independent poll in 2009 placed the figure at around 20–22%.[171] According to the [Iranologist](/source/Iranian_studies) Victoria Arakelova in peer-reviewed journal *[Iran and the Caucasus](/source/Iran_and_the_Caucasus)*, estimating the number of Azeris in Iran has been hampered for years since the [dissolution of the Soviet Union](/source/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union), when the "once invented theory of the so called separated nation (i.e. the citizens of the Azerbaijan Republic, the so-called Azerbaijanis, and the Azaris in Iran), was actualised again (see in detail Reza 1993)". Arakelova adds that the number of Azeris in Iran, featuring in the politically biased publications as "Azerbaijani minority of Iran", is considered to be the "highly speculative part of this theory". Even though all Iranian censuses of population distinguish exclusively religious minorities, numerous sources have presented different figures regarding Iran's Turkic-speaking communities, without "any justification or concrete references".[172]

In the early 1990s, right after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the most popular figure depicting the number of "Azerbaijanis" in Iran was thirty-three million, at a time when the entire population of Iran was barely sixty million. Therefore, at the time, half of Iran's citizens were considered "Azerbaijanis". Shortly after, this figure was replaced by thirty million, which became "almost a normative account on the demographic situation in Iran, widely circulating not only among academics and political analysts, but also in the official circles of Russia and the West". Then, in the 2000s, the figure decreased to 20 million; this time, at least within the Russian political establishment, the figure became "firmly fixed". This figure, Arakelova adds, has been widely used and kept up to date, only with a few minor adjustments. A cursory look at Iran's demographic situation however, shows that all these figures have been manipulated and were "definitely invented on political purpose". Arakelova estimates the number of Azeris i.e. "Azerbaijanis" in Iran based on Iran's population demographics at 6 to 6.5 million.[172]

Azerbaijanis in Iran are mainly found in the northwest provinces: [West Azerbaijan](/source/West_Azerbaijan), [East Azerbaijan](/source/East_Azerbaijan), [Ardabil](/source/Ardabil_Province), [Zanjan](/source/Zanjan_Province), parts of [Hamadan](/source/Hamedan_Province), [Qazvin](/source/Qazvin_Province), and [Markazi](/source/Markazi_Province).[170] Azerbaijani minorities live in the [Qorveh](/source/Qorveh_County)[173] and [Bijar](/source/Bijar_County)[174] counties of [Kurdistan](/source/Kurdistan_Province), in [Gilan](/source/Gilan_Province),[175][176][177][178] as [ethnic enclaves](/source/Ethnic_enclave) in [Galugah](/source/Galugah) in [Mazandaran](/source/Mazandaran_Province), around [Lotfabad](/source/Lotfabad) and [Dargaz](/source/Dargaz) in [Razavi Khorasan](/source/Razavi_Khorasan_Province),[179] and in the town of [Gonbad-e Qabus](/source/Gonbad-e_Qabus) in [Golestan](/source/Golestan_Province).[180] Large Azerbaijani populations can also be found in central Iran ([Tehran](/source/Tehran_Province) and [Alborz](/source/Alborz_Province)) due to internal migration. Azerbaijanis make up 25%[181] of [Tehran](/source/Tehran)'s population and 30.3%[182] – 33%[183][184] of the population of the Tehran Province, where Azerbaijanis are found in every city.[185] They are the largest ethnic groups after [Persians](/source/Persian_people) in Tehran and the Tehran Province.[186][187] Arakelova notes that the widespread "cliché" among residents of Tehran on the number of Azerbaijanis in the city ("half of Tehran consists of Azerbaijanis"), cannot be taken "seriously into consideration". Arakelova adds that the number of Tehran's inhabitants who have migrated from northwestern areas of Iran, who are currently Persian-speakers "for the most part", is not more than "several hundred thousands", with the maximum being one million.[172] Azerbaijanis have also emigrated and resettled in large numbers in [Khorasan](/source/Khorasan_Province),[188] especially in [Mashhad](/source/Mashhad).[189]

Generally, Azerbaijanis in Iran were regarded as "a well integrated linguistic minority" by academics prior to [Iran's Islamic Revolution](/source/Iranian_Revolution).[190][191] Despite friction, Azerbaijanis in Iran came to be well represented at all levels of "political, military, and intellectual hierarchies, as well as the religious hierarchy".[168]

Resentment came with Pahlavi policies that suppressed the use of the [Azerbaijani language](/source/Azerbaijani_language) in local government, schools, and the press.[192] However, with the advent of the [Iranian Revolution](/source/Iranian_Revolution) in 1979, emphasis shifted away from nationalism as the new government highlighted religion as the main unifying factor. Islamic [theocratic](/source/Theocracy) institutions dominate nearly all aspects of society. The Azerbaijani language and its literature are banned in Iranian schools.[193][194] There are signs of civil unrest due to the policies of the Iranian government in Iranian Azerbaijan and increased interaction with fellow Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan and satellite broadcasts from Turkey and other Turkic countries have revived Azerbaijani nationalism.[195] In May 2006, Iranian Azerbaijan witnessed riots over publication of a [cartoon depicting a cockroach speaking Azerbaijani](/source/Iran_newspaper_cockroach_cartoon_controversy)[196] that many Azerbaijanis found offensive.[197][198] The cartoon was drawn by [Mana Neyestani](/source/Mana_Neyestani), an Azeri, who was fired along with his editor as a result of the controversy.[199][200] One of the major incidents that happened recently was [Azeris protests in Iran (2015)](/source/Azeris_protests_in_Iran_(2015)) started in November 2015, after children's television programme *Fitileha a*ired on 6 November on state TV that ridiculed and mocked the accent and language of Azeris and included offensive jokes.[201] As a result, ethnic Azeris protested a program on state TV that contained what they consider an ethnic slur. The head of the country's state broadcaster [Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB)](/source/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Broadcasting) Mohammad Sarafraz has apologized for airing the program, whose broadcast was later discontinued.[202]

Azerbaijanis are an intrinsic community of Iran, and their style of living closely resemble those of [Persians](/source/Persian_people):

The lifestyles of urban Azerbaijanis do not differ from those of Persians, and there is considerable intermarriage among the upper classes in cities of mixed populations. Similarly, customs among Azerbaijani villagers do not appear to differ markedly from those of Persian villagers.[170]

Azeris are famously active in commerce and in bazaars all over Iran their voluble voices can be heard. Older Azeri men wear the traditional wool hat, and their music & dances have become part of the mainstream culture. Azeris are well integrated, and many Azeri-Iranians are prominent in [Persian literature](/source/Persian_literature), politics, and clerical world.[203]

There is significant cross-border trade between Azerbaijan and Iran, and Azerbaijanis from Azerbaijan go into Iran to buy goods that are cheaper, but the relationship was tense until recently.[193] However, [relations](/source/Azerbaijan-Iran_relations) have significantly improved since the [Rouhani](/source/Hassan_Rouhani) administration took office.

### Subgroups

Ayrum from Azerbaijan (left); Shahsevan girls from a rich family. End of the 19th century, Iran (right).

There are at least ten Azerbaijani ethnic groups, each of which has particularities in the economy, culture, and everyday life. Some Azerbaijani ethnic groups continued in the last quarter of the 19th century.

Major Azerbaijani ethnic groups:

- [Ayrums](/source/Ayrums)[204]

- [Afshars](/source/Afshars)

- [Bayat](/source/Bayat_(tribe))

- [Qaradaghis](/source/Qaradaghis)

- [Qizilbash](/source/Qizilbash)

- [Karapapak](/source/Karapapak)

- [Padar tribe](/source/Padar_tribe)[204]

- [Terekeme](/source/Terekeme)

- [Shahsevan](/source/Shahsevan)[204]

- [Qajars](/source/Qajars_(tribe))

### Diaspora

Main article: [Azerbaijani diaspora](/source/Azerbaijani_diaspora)

### Women

See also: [Women in Azerbaijan](/source/Women_in_Azerbaijan) and [Women in Iran](/source/Women_in_Iran)

In Azerbaijan, women were granted the right to vote in 1917.[205] Women have attained Western-style equality in major cities such as [Baku](/source/Baku), although in rural areas more reactionary views remain.[166] Violence against women, including rape, is rarely reported, especially in rural areas, not unlike other parts of the former Soviet Union.[206] In Azerbaijan, the veil was abandoned during the Soviet period.[207] Women are under-represented in elective office but have attained high positions in parliament. An Azerbaijani woman is the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in Azerbaijan, and two others are Justices of the Constitutional Court. In the 2010 election, women constituted 16% of all MPs (twenty seats in total) in the [National Assembly of Azerbaijan](/source/National_Assembly_of_Azerbaijan).[208] [Abortion](/source/Abortion) is available on demand in the Republic of Azerbaijan.[209] [Elmira Süleymanova](/source/Elmira_S%C3%BCleymanova), who served as human rights [ombudsman](/source/Ombudsman#Azerbaijan) from 2002 to 2019, was a woman.[210]

In Iran, a groundswell of grassroots movements have sought gender equality since the 1980s.[170] Protests in defiance of government bans are dispersed through violence, as on 12 June 2006 when female demonstrators in Haft Tir Square in Tehran were beaten.[211] Past Iranian leaders, such as the reformer ex-president [Mohammad Khatami](/source/Mohammad_Khatami) promised women greater rights, but the [Guardian Council](/source/Guardian_Council) of Iran opposes changes that they interpret as contrary to Islamic doctrine. In the 2004 legislative elections, nine women were elected to parliament ([Majlis](/source/Majlis)), eight of whom were conservatives.[212] The social fate of Azerbaijani women largely mirrors that of other women in Iran.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Culture

Main articles: [Culture of Azerbaijan](/source/Culture_of_Azerbaijan) and [Culture of Iran](/source/Culture_of_Iran)

### Language and literature

Main articles: [Azerbaijani language](/source/Azerbaijani_language) and [Azerbaijani literature](/source/Azerbaijani_literature)

Portrait of [Muhammad Fuzûlî](/source/Fuz%C3%BBl%C3%AE) by [Azim Azimzade](/source/Azim_Azimzade) (1914). Fuzûlî is considered one of the greatest [Azerbaijani poets](/source/Azerbaijani_literature)[213]

The Azerbaijanis speak the [Azerbaijani language](/source/Azerbaijani_language), a [Turkic language](/source/Turkic_languages) descended from the branches of Oghuz Turkic language that became established in Azerbaijan in the 11th and 12th centuries CE. The Azerbaijani language is closely related to [Qashqai](/source/Qashqai_language), [Gagauz](/source/Gagauz_language), [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language), [Turkmen](/source/Turkmen_language) and [Crimean Tatar](/source/Crimean_Tatar_language), sharing varying degrees of [mutual intelligibility](/source/Mutual_intelligibility) with each of those languages.[214] Certain lexical and grammatical differences formed within the Azerbaijani language as spoken in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Iran, after nearly two centuries of separation between the communities speaking the language; mutual intelligibility, however, has been preserved.[215] Additionally, the Turkish and Azerbaijani languages are mutually intelligible to a high enough degree that their speakers can have simple conversations without prior knowledge of the other.[113]

Early literature was mainly based on oral tradition, and the later compiled epics and heroic stories of [Dede Korkut](/source/Book_of_Dede_Korkut) probably derive from it. The first written, classical Azerbaijani literature arose after the Mongol invasion, while the first accepted Oghuz Turkic text goes back to the 15th century.[216] Some of the earliest Azerbaijani writings trace back to the poet [Nasimi](/source/Imadaddin_Nasimi) (died 1417) and then decades later [Fuzûlî](/source/Fuz%C3%BBl%C3%AE) (1483–1556). [Ismail I](/source/Ismail_I), Shah of [Safavid Iran](/source/Safavid_dynasty) wrote Azerbaijani poetry under the pen name *Khatâ'i*.

Modern Azerbaijani literature continued with a traditional emphasis upon [humanism](/source/Humanism), as conveyed in the writings of [Samad Vurgun](/source/Samad_Vurgun), [Shahriar](/source/Mohammad_Hossein_Shahriar), and many others.[217]

Azerbaijanis are generally bilingual, often fluent in either Russian (in Azerbaijan) or [Persian](/source/Persian_language) (in Iran) in addition to their native Azerbaijani. As of 1996, around 38% of Azerbaijan's roughly 8,000,000 population spoke Russian fluently.[218] An independent telephone survey in Iran in 2009 reported that 20% of respondents could understand Azerbaijani, the most spoken minority language in Iran, and all respondents could understand Persian.[171]

### Religion

Main articles: [Religion in Azerbaijan](/source/Religion_in_Azerbaijan), [Islam in Azerbaijan](/source/Islam_in_Azerbaijan), and [Islam in Iran](/source/Islam_in_Iran)

Azerbaijani [madrasa](/source/Madrasa) in [Karabakh](/source/Karabakh), 1865

The majority of Azerbaijanis are [Twelver](/source/Twelver) [Shi'a Muslims](/source/Shi'a_Islam). Religious minorities include [Sunni Muslims](/source/Sunni_Islam) (mainly [Shafi'i](/source/Shafi'i) just like other Muslims in the surrounding North Caucasus),[219][220] and [Baháʼís](/source/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith). An unknown number of Azerbaijanis in the Republic of Azerbaijan have no religious affiliation. Many describe themselves as Shia Muslims.[166] There is a small number of [Naqshbandi](/source/Naqshbandi) [Sufis](/source/Sufism) among Muslim Azerbaijanis.[221] Christian Azerbaijanis number around 5,000 people in the Republic of Azerbaijan and consist mostly of recent converts.[222][223] Some Azerbaijanis from rural regions retain pre-Islamic [animist](/source/Animist) or [Zoroastrian](/source/Zoroastrianism_in_Azerbaijan)-influenced[224] beliefs, such as the sanctity of certain sites and the veneration of fire, certain trees and rocks.[225] In Azerbaijan, traditions from other religions are often celebrated in addition to [Islamic holidays](/source/Islamic_holidays), including [Nowruz](/source/Nowruz) and [Christmas](/source/Christmas).

### Performing arts

See also: [Music of Azerbaijan](/source/Music_of_Azerbaijan) and [Music of Iran](/source/Music_of_Iran)

[Uzeyir Hajibeyov](/source/Uzeyir_Hajibeyov), Azerbaijani composer, musicologist, and teacher. He composed the [National Anthem of Azerbaijan](/source/Az%C9%99rbaycan_mar%C5%9F%C4%B1), and is often referred to as the father of [Azerbaijani classical music](/source/Azerbaijani_classical_music)

In the group dance the performers come together in a semi-circular or circular formation as, "The leader of these dances often executes special figures as well as signaling and changes in the foot patterns, movements, or direction in which the group is moving, often by gesturing with his or her hand, in which a kerchief is held."[226]

[Mugham triads](/source/Mugham_triads)

Azerbaijani musical tradition can be traced back to singing [bards](/source/Bard) called *[Ashiqs](/source/Ashiq)*, a vocation that survives. Modern Ashiqs play the [saz](/source/Baglama) ([lute](/source/Lute)) and sing *dastans* (historical [ballads](/source/Ballad)).[227] Other musical instruments include the *[tar](/source/Tar_(lute))* (another type of lute), *[balaban](/source/Balaban_(instrument))* (a wind instrument), *[kamancha](/source/Kamancha)* (fiddle), and the *[dhol](/source/Dhol)* (drums). Azerbaijani classical music, called *[mugham](/source/Mugham)*, is often an emotional singing performance. Composers [Uzeyir Hajibeyov](/source/Uzeyir_Hajibeyov), [Gara Garayev](/source/Gara_Garayev) and [Fikret Amirov](/source/Fikret_Amirov) created a hybrid style that combines Western [classical music](/source/European_classical_music) with *mugham*. Other Azerbaijanis, notably [Vagif](/source/Vagif_Mustafa_Zadeh) and [Aziza Mustafa Zadeh](/source/Aziza_Mustafa_Zadeh), mixed [jazz](/source/Jazz) with *mugham*. Some Azerbaijani musicians have received international acclaim, including [Rashid Behbudov](/source/Rashid_Behbudov) (who could sing in over eight languages), [Muslim Magomayev](/source/Muslim_Magomayev_(musician)) (a pop star from the Soviet era), [Googoosh](/source/Googoosh), and more recently [Sami Yusuf](/source/Sami_Yusuf).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

After the [1979 revolution](/source/1979_revolution) in Iran due to the clerical opposition to music in general, Azerbaijani music took a different course. According to Iranian singer [Hossein Alizadeh](/source/Hossein_Alizadeh), "Historically in Iran, music faced strong opposition from the religious establishment, forcing it to go underground."[228]

Some Azerbaijanis have been film-makers, such as [Rustam Ibragimbekov](/source/Rustam_Ibragimbekov), who wrote *[Burnt by the Sun](/source/Burnt_by_the_Sun)*, winner of the Grand Prize at the [Cannes Film Festival](/source/Cannes_Film_Festival) and an [Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film](/source/Academy_Award_for_Best_Foreign_Language_Film) in 1994.

### Sports

See also: [Azerbaijan at the Olympics](/source/Azerbaijan_at_the_Olympics) and [List of Azerbaijani Olympic medalists](/source/List_of_Azerbaijani_Olympic_medalists)

Chess player [Shakhriyar Mamedyarov](/source/Shakhriyar_Mamedyarov)

[Hidayat Heydarov](/source/Hidayat_Heydarov), Azerbaijani judoka, [Olympic Champion](/source/Olympic_Games), [World Champion](/source/World_Judo_Championships) and a four-time [European Champion](/source/European_Judo_Championships)

Other ancient sports include [wrestling](/source/Wrestling), [javelin throwing](/source/Javelin_throwing) and [fencing](/source/Fencing). The Soviet legacy has in modern times propelled some Azerbaijanis to become accomplished athletes at the Olympic level.[229] The [Azerbaijani government](/source/Politics_of_Azerbaijan) supports the country's athletic legacy and encourages youth participation. Iranian athletes of Azerbaijani origin have particularly excelled in [weight lifting](/source/Powerlifting), [gymnastics](/source/Gymnastics), [shooting](/source/Shooting_sports), javelin throwing, [karate](/source/Karate), [boxing](/source/Boxing), and wrestling.[230] Weight lifters, such as Iran's [Hossein Reza Zadeh](/source/Hossein_Reza_Zadeh), world super heavyweight-lifting record holder and two-time Olympic champion in 2000 and 2004, or [Hadi Saei](/source/Hadi_Saei), a former Iranian.[231] [Ramil Guliyev](/source/Ramil_Guliyev), an ethnic Azerbaijani who plays for Turkey, became the first [world champion in athletics in the history of Turkey](/source/Turkey_at_the_World_Athletics_Championships). Athletes such as [Nizami Pashayev](/source/Nizami_Pashayev), who won the European heavyweight title in 2006, have excelled at the international level. [Chess](/source/Chess) is another popular pastime in the Republic of Azerbaijan.[232] The strongest players of Azerbaijani origin [Vugar Gashimov](/source/Vugar_Gashimov), [Shahriyar Mammadyarov](/source/Shahriyar_Mammadyarov) and [Teimour Radjabov](/source/Teimour_Radjabov), all three highly ranked internationally. Karate is also popular, where [Rafael Aghayev](/source/Rafael_Aghayev) achieved particular success, becoming a five-time world champion and eleven-time European champion.

## See also

- [Azerbaijan portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Azerbaijan)
- [Iran portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Iran)

- [List of Azerbaijanis](/source/List_of_Azerbaijanis)

- [Turkic peoples](/source/Turkic_peoples)

- [Peoples of the Caucasus](/source/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus)

- [Iranian Azerbaijanis](/source/Iranian_Azerbaijanis)

- [Azerbaijan (Iran)](/source/Azerbaijan_(Iran))

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** The ethnonyms are also used to designate [Persians](/source/Persians).[79]

## References

### Citations

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-avraham_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-avraham_1-1) [Sela, Avraham](/source/Avraham_Sela) (2002). [*The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YJwsAQAAIAAJ&q=30-35). Continuum. p. 197. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8264-1413-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1413-7). They number 30-35 million and live primarily in Iran (approximately 20 million), the Republic of Azerbaijan (8 million), Turkey (1-2 million), Russia (1 million), and Georgia (300,000).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-dictionary_2-7) [Swietochowski & Collins (1999](#CITEREFSwietochowskiCollins1999), p. 165): Today, Iranian Azerbaijan has a solid majority of Azeris with an estimated population of at least 15 million (over twice the population of the Azerbaijani Republic). (1999)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-16.7mil_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-16.7mil_3-1) ["Iran"](https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IR/status). *Ethnologue*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190904065634/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IR/status) from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 26 October 2018. Ethnic population: 16,700,000 (2019)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-18mil_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-18mil_4-1) [Elling, Rasmus Christian](/source/Rasmus_Christian_Elling) (18 February 2013). *Minorities in Iran: Nationalism and Ethnicity after Khomeini*. Springer. p. 28. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-137-04780-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-04780-9). CIA and Library of Congress estimates range from 16 percent to 24 percent—that is, 12–18 million people if we employ the latest total figure for Iran's population (77.8 million).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Gheissari_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Gheissari_5-1) Gheissari, Ali (2 April 2009). *Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics*. Oxford University Press. p. 300. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-988860-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-988860-3). As of 2003, the ethnic classifications are estimated as: [...] Azeri (24 percent)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bani-Shoraka_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bani-Shoraka_6-1) Bani-Shoraka, Helena (1 July 2009). "Cross-generational bilingual strategies among Azerbaijanis in Tehran". *International Journal of the Sociology of Language* (198): 106. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/IJSL.2009.029](https://doi.org/10.1515%2FIJSL.2009.029). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1613-3668](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-3668). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144993160](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144993160). The latest figures estimate the Azerbaijani population at 24% of Iran's 70 million inhabitants (NVI 2003/2004: 301). This means that there are between 15 and 20 million Azerbaijanis in Iran.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Potter_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Potter_7-1) Potter, Lawrence G. (2014). [*Sectarian Politics in the Persian Gulf*](https://books.google.com/books?id=50pRBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA290). Oxford University Press. p. 290. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-937726-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937726-8). Retrieved 14 January 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Crane_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Crane_8-1) Crane, Keith; Lal, Rollie; Martini, Jeffrey (6 June 2008). [*Iran's Political, Demographic, and Economic Vulnerabilities*](https://books.google.com/books?id=PmlMdb5ACHEC&pg=PA38). RAND Corporation. p. 38. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8330-4527-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-4527-0). Retrieved 17 January 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Moaddel_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Moaddel_9-1) Moaddel, Mansoor; Karabenick, Stuart A. (4 June 2013). *Religious Fundamentalism in the Middle East: A Cross-National, Inter-Faith, and Inter-Ethnic Analysis*. Brill. p. 101. The Azeris have a mixed heritage of Iranic, Caucasian, and Turkic elements(...) Between 16 to 23 million Azeris live in Iran.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Eschment_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Eschment_10-1) Eschment, Beate; von Löwis, Sabine, eds. (18 August 2022). *Post-Soviet Borders: A Kaleidoscope of Shifting Lives and Lands*. Taylor & Francis. p. 31. Irrespective of the large Azerbaijani population in Iran (about 20 million, compared to 7 million in Azerbaijan)(...)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Leeuw_14-0)** van der Leeuw, Charles (2000). [*Azerbaijan: a quest for identity: a short history*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sNoP1zphWf8C&pg=PA19). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 19. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-312-21903-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-21903-1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150320173346/http://books.google.com/books?id=sNoP1zphWf8C&pg=PA19) from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["The National Structure of the Republic of Uzbekistan"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120223090542/http://www.arbuz.com/Umid/Main/Uzbekistan/Population/population.html). Umid World. 1989. Archived from [the original](http://www.arbuz.com/Umid/Main/Uzbekistan/Population/population.html) on 23 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** [Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Национальный состав населения по республикам СССР](https://web.archive.org/web/20120314043707/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=14). *Демоскоп Weekly* (in Russian) (493–494). 1–22 January 2012. Archived from [the original](http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php?reg=14) on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["A portrait of a migrant: Azerbaijanis in Germany"](https://www.boell.de/en/2022/01/12/portrait-migrant-azerbaijanis-germany). *boell.de*. HEINRICH-BÖLL-STIFTUNG – The Green Political Foundation. 12 January 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["The Kingdom of the Netherlands: Bilateral relations: Diaspora"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120119175140/http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Netherlands.pdf) (PDF). Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from [the original](http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Netherlands.pdf) (PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** ["5.01.00.03 Национальный состав населения"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120219092904/http://www.stat.kg/stat.files/din.files/census/5010003.pdf) (PDF) (in Russian). National Statistical Committee of Kyrgyz Republic. 2011. Archived from [the original](http://www.stat.kg/stat.files/din.files/census/5010003.pdf) (PDF) on 19 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** İlhamqızı, Sevda (2 October 2007). ["Gələn ilin sonuna qədər dünyada yaşayan azərbaycanlıların sayı və məskunlaşma coğrafiyasına dair xəritə hazırlanacaq"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170202205358/http://az.trend.az/azerbaijan/society/1034370.html). *Trend News Agency* (in Azerbaijani). Baku. Archived from [the original](http://az.trend.az/azerbaijan/society/1034370.html) on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** ["Canada Census Profile 2021"](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000011124&HEADERlist=31&SearchText=Canada). *Census Profile, 2021 Census*. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. 7 May 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** ["Estrangeiros em Portugal"](https://www.sef.pt/pt/Documents/RIFA2022%20vF2a.pdf) (PDF).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["Number of Azerbaijanis living outside Azerbaijan – Azerbaijan.az"](https://azerbaijan.az/en/related-information/207). *azerbaijan.az*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** ["DIASPORA – AZERTAC"](https://azertag.az/en/bolme/diaspora?page=19&device=Desktop).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BQ_30-0)** ["UAE´s population – by nationality"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150711160839/http://www.bqdoha.com/2015/04/uae-population-by-nationality). *BQ Magazine*. 12 April 2015. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ons2011_31-0)** ["Nationality and country of birth by age, sex and qualifications Jan – Dec 2013 (Excel sheet 60Kb)"](http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/about-ons/business-transparency/freedom-of-information/what-can-i-request/published-ad-hoc-data/labour/april-2014/nationality-and-country-of-birth-by-age--sex-and-qualifications-jan---dec-2013.xls). *www.ons.gov.uk*. [Office for National Statistics](/source/Office_for_National_Statistics). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150924060723/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/about-ons/business-transparency/freedom-of-information/what-can-i-request/published-ad-hoc-data/labour/april-2014/nationality-and-country-of-birth-by-age--sex-and-qualifications-jan---dec-2013.xls) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["Population Census 2009"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120118175907/http://belstat.gov.by/homep/ru/perepic/2009/vihod_tables/5.8-0.pdf) (PDF). National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus. Archived from [the original](http://belstat.gov.by/homep/ru/perepic/2009/vihod_tables/5.8-0.pdf) (PDF) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Statistics_Sweden_33-0)** ["Foreign born after country of birth and immigration year"](http://www.scb.se/sv_/Hitta-statistik/Statistik-efter-amne/Befolkning/Befolkningens-sammansattning/Befolkningsstatistik/25788/25795/Helarsstatistik---Riket/385479/). Statistics Sweden.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** ["Population by ethnicity at the beginning of year – Time period and Ethnicity | National Statistical System of Latvia"](https://data.stat.gov.lv/pxweb/en/OSP_PUB/START__POP__IR__IRE/IRE010/table/tableViewLayout1/). *data.stat.gov.lv*.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** [Azerbaijan country brief](https://dfat.gov.au/geo/azerbaijan/pages/azerbaijan-country-brief.aspx) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190618103730/https://dfat.gov.au/geo/azerbaijan/pages/azerbaijan-country-brief.aspx) 18 June 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). NB According to the 2016 census, 1,036 people living in Australia identified themselves as of Azeri ancestry. Retrieved 18 June 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["The Republic of Austria: Bilateral relations"](http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Austria.pdf) (PDF). Republic of Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 18 January 2012.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** ["Population Census of 2011"](http://andmebaas.stat.ee/Index.aspx?lang=en&SubSessionId=860f7cac-3d26-4f21-be73-66fb9cbd4d52&themetreeid=7). Statistics Estonia. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181111000011/http://andmebaas.stat.ee/Index.aspx?lang=en&SubSessionId=860f7cac-3d26-4f21-be73-66fb9cbd4d52&themetreeid=7) from the original on 11 November 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2018. Select "Azerbaijani" under "Ethnic nationality".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Statistics_Canada_39-0)** ["2020-03-09"](https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef/aar/2020-03-09). *ssb.no*. 9 March 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201117201818/https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef/aar/2020-03-09) from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 3 January 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-litstats_40-0)** ["Population by ethnicity in 1959, 1970, 1979, 1989, 2001 and 2011"](https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/217110/Gyv_kalba_tikyba.pdf/1d9dac9a-3d45-4798-93f5-941fed00503f). Lithuanian Department of Statistics. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200313110843/https://osp.stat.gov.lt/documents/10180/217110/Gyv_kalba_tikyba.pdf/1d9dac9a-3d45-4798-93f5-941fed00503f) from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2016.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** [http://demo.istat.it/str2019/index.html](http://demo.istat.it/str2019/index.html) [ISTAT](/source/Italian_National_Institute_of_Statistics) – Foreign resident population in 2019

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Robertson,_Lawrence_R._2002_210_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Robertson,_Lawrence_R._2002_210_43-1) Robertson, Lawrence R. (2002). [*Russia & Eurasia Facts & Figures Annual*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ye1oAAAAMAAJ). Academic International Press. p. 210. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-87569-199-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87569-199-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150320162646/http://books.google.com/books?id=ye1oAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-golden_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-golden_44-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-golden_44-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-golden_44-3) Golden, Peter B. (1992). [*An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples*](https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00gold). Otto Harrasowitz. pp. [385](https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00gold/page/n395)–386. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-447-03274-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03274-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Ismail Zardabli. *Ethnic and political history of Azerbaijan*. Rossendale Books. 2018. p.35 "... the ancestors of Azerbaijanis and Turkmens are the tribes that lived in these territories."

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Harcave, Sidney (1968). *Russia: A History: Sixth Edition*. Lippincott. p. 267.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz (2007). *Boundary Politics and International Boundaries of Iran: A Study of the Origin, Evolution, and Implications of the Boundaries of Modern Iran with Its 15 Neighbors in the Middle East by a Number of Renowned Experts in the Field*. Universal. p. 372. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58112-933-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58112-933-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Lendering, Jona. ["Atropates (Biography)"](https://www.livius.org/as-at/atropates/atropates.htm). Livius.org. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140901014335/http://www.livius.org/as-at/atropates/atropates.htm) from the original on 1 September 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Chamoux, Francois (2003). [*Hellenistic Civilization*](https://archive.org/details/hellenisticcivil00cham). Blackwell Publishing. p. [26](https://archive.org/details/hellenisticcivil00cham/page/n37). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-631-22241-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22241-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Bosworth, A. B.; Baynham, E. J. (2002). [*Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction*](https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatfa00bosw). Oxford University Press. p. [92](https://archive.org/details/alexandergreatfa00bosw/page/n99). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-815287-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-815287-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Atabaki, Touraj (2000). [*Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MybbePBf9YcC&q=azeri). I. B. Tauris. p. 7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86064-554-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-554-9). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210204225105/https://books.google.com/books?id=MybbePBf9YcC&q=azeri) from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-altstadt_57-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-altstadt_57-1) Altstadt, Audrey L. (1992). *The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule*. Hoover Institution Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8179-9182-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-9182-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaumont198717–18_58-0)** [Chaumont 1987](#CITEREFChaumont1987), pp. 17–18.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Pahlavi_Dictionary_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Pahlavi_Dictionary_59-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Pahlavi_Dictionary_59-2) MacKenzie, D. (1971). A concise Pahlavi dictionary (p. 5, 8, 18). London: Oxford university press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Planhol2004205–215_60-0)** [de Planhol 2004](#CITEREFde_Planhol2004), pp. 205–215.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Schippmann, K. (15 December 1987). ["Azerbaijan, Pre-Islamic History"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-iii). *Encyclopædia Iranica*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130322101247/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-iii) from the original on 22 March 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** ["Azerbaijan"](http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Azerbaijan&allowed_in_frame=0). *Online Etymology Dictionary*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102543/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Azerbaijan&allowed_in_frame=0) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** Aliyev, Igrar. (1958). History of Atropatene (تاريخ آتورپاتكان) (p. 93).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** EI. (1989). ["AZERBAIJAN"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-index). In [Yarshater, Ehsan](/source/Ehsan_Yarshater) (ed.). *[Encyclopædia Iranica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica)*. Vol. III: Ātaš–Bayhaqī, Ẓahīr-al-Dīn. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 205–257. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-71009-121-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71009-121-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Kemp, Geoffrey; Stein, Janice Gross (1995). [*Powder Keg in the Middle East*](https://archive.org/details/powderkeginmiddl00geof). Rowman & Littlefield. p. [214](https://archive.org/details/powderkeginmiddl00geof/page/214). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8476-8075-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-8075-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** Tsutsiev, Arthur. "18. 1886–1890: An Ethnolinguistic Map of the Caucasus". Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014, pp. 48–50. "*"Tatars" (or in rarer cases, "Azerbaijani Tatars") to denote Turkic-speaking Transcaucasian populations that would later be called "Azerbaijanis""*

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Yilmaz2013_67-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Yilmaz2013_67-1) Yilmaz, Harun (2013). "The Soviet Union and the Construction of Azerbaijani National Identity in the 1930s". *Iranian Studies*. **46** (4): 513. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00210862.2013.784521](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784521). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0021-0862](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-0862). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144322861](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144322861). The official records of the Russian Empire and various published sources from the pre-1917 period also called them "Tatar" or "Caucasian Tatars," "Azerbaijani Tatars" and even "Persian Tatars" in order to differentiate them from the other "Tatars" of the empire and the Persian speakers of Iran.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** [Алфавитный список народов, обитающих в Российской Империи](https://web.archive.org/web/20120205042823/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2005/0187/perep04.php) (in Russian). Demoscope Weekly. 2005. Archived from [the original](http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2005/0187/perep04.php) on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** [Тюрки](http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/103/103729.htm). *Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary* (in Russian). 1890–1907. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120113221158/http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/103/103729.htm) from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** [Тюрко-татары](http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/103/103731.htm). *Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary* (in Russian). 1890–1907. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120113223602/http://gatchina3000.ru/brockhaus-and-efron-encyclopedic-dictionary/103/103731.htm) from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Deniker, Joseph (1900). [*Races et peuples de la terre*](https://books.google.com/books?id=rbqRt-A13P8C&pg=PA349) (in French). Paris, France: Schleicher frères. p. 349. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170321183728/https://books.google.com/books?id=rbqRt-A13P8C&pg=PA349) from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2016. Ce groupement ne coïncide pas non-plus avec le groupement somatologique : ainsi, les Aderbaïdjani du Caucase et de la Perse, parlant une langue turque, ont le mème type physique que les Persans-Hadjemi, parlant une langue iranienne.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** Mostashari, Firouzeh (2006). [*On the Religious Frontier: Tsarist Russia and Islam in the Caucasus*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RBNDaEFGJrsC). I. B. Tauris. p. 129. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85043-771-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-771-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160522082022/https://books.google.com/books?id=RBNDaEFGJrsC) from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Tsutsiev, Arthur. "Appendix 3: Ethnic Composition of the Caucasus: Historical Population Statistics". Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014, p. 192 (note 150).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tsutsiev_74-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tsutsiev_74-1) Tsutsiev, Arthur. "31. 1926: An Ethnic Map Reflecting the First Soviet Census". Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014, p. 87.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Tsutsiev, Arthur. "26. 1920: The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and Soviet Russia". Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014, pp. 71–73.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** Tsutsiev, Arthur. "32. 1926: Using the Census to Identify Russians and Ukrainians". Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014, pp. 87–90

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_77-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_77-1) "AZERBAIJAN". [*Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 2–3*](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-index). 1987. pp. 205–257.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Garibova, Jala. ["'Azeri' vs. 'Azerbaijani'"](https://bakudialogues.idd.az/articles/azeri-vs-azerbaijani-04-07-2021). *bakudialogues.idd.az*. The term 'Azeri' is basically used by foreigners, including citizens of Turkey, and most frequently in reference to the name of Azerbaijan's titular language. While many foreigners that opt to use the form 'Azeri' genuinely believe they employ the correct term for referring to the country's titular language, the use of this reduced form usually sparks an emotional reaction among Azerbaijanis. To some, the reduced form—particularly if used formally—is considered a disparagement, as it allegedly depreciates the importance of the name of the nation and its language. Thus, these people take it as a mark of disrespect towards the people of Azerbaijan and their language. Others believe that many foreigners use the reduced form because they think this is the right one to use and that these foreigners simply need to be informed about the correct form. Still others see the term 'Azeri' as dangerous, as it implicitly links Azerbaijan's titular ethnicity to some hypothetical group that would be, by implication, non‑Turkic (we will come to a discussion later on about how this hypothetical ethnicity is termed 'Azer' by some). Consequently, these people prefer the use of a term that can be directly associated with at least the geographical origin of the titular nation (i.e., with Azerbaijan) in the absence of the name that would clearly show the Turkic origin of the titular nation.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKurkiev1979190_79-0)** [Kurkiev 1979](#CITEREFKurkiev1979), p. 190.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkhriev1975203_81-0)** [Akhriev 1975](#CITEREFAkhriev1975), p. 203.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-yarshater_82-0)** Yarshater, E (18 August 2011). ["The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-vii). Encyclopædia Iranica. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130131081642/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-vii) from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Bosworth, C. E. (12 August 2011). ["Arran"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arran-a-region). Encyclopædia Iranica. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170727092744/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arran-a-region) from the original on 27 July 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-roy_84-0)** [Roy, Olivier](/source/Olivier_Roy_(professor)) (2007). [*The new Central Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMcn6Ik1v0C&pg=PA7). I.B. Tauris. p. 6. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84511-552-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-552-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803141204/https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMcn6Ik1v0C&pg=PA7) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020. The mass of the Oghuz who crossed the Amu Darya towards the west left the Iranian plateau, which remained Persian, and established themselves more to the west, in Anatolia. Here they divided into Ottomans, who were Sunni and settled, and Turkmens, who were nomads and in part Shiite (or, rather, Alevi). The latter was to keep the name 'Turkmen' for a long time: from the 13th century onwards they 'Turkified' the Iranian populations of Azerbaijan (who spoke west Iranian languages such as Tat, which is still found in residual forms), thus creating a new identity based on Shiism and the use of Turkish. These are the people today known as Azeris.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Coene, Frederik (2010). [*The Caucasus: An Introduction*](https://archive.org/details/caucasusintroduc00coen). Routledge. p. [97](https://archive.org/details/caucasusintroduc00coen/page/n113). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-48660-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-48660-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** ["Countries and Territories of the World"](https://books.google.com/books?id=TsoJhzc426cC&q=Early+Iranian+settlements+included+the+Scythians+in+the+ninth+century+BC&pg=PA586). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210204225107/https://books.google.com/books?id=TsoJhzc426cC&q=Early+Iranian+settlements+included+the+Scythians+in+the+ninth+century+BC&pg=PA586) from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** ["Armenia-Ancient Period"](http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+am0014)). Federal Research Division Library of Congress. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190507140626/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+am0014%29) from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Chaumont, M. L. (29 July 2011). ["Albania"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aran-arm). Encyclopædia Iranica. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200526212016/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/albania-iranian-aran-arm) from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Alexidze, Zaza (Summer 2002). ["Voices of the Ancients: Heyerdahl Intrigued by Rare Caucasus Albanian Text"](http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_photos/102_heyerdahl_alexidze.html). *Azerbaijan International*. **10** (2): 26–27. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181004044141/http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_photos/102_heyerdahl_alexidze.html) from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** ["Sassanid Empire"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120213113547/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/beginnings/sassanid.html). *The Islamic World to 1600*. University of Calgary. 1998. Archived from [the original](https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/beginnings/sassanid.html) on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2012.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lapidus_91-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lapidus_91-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-lapidus_91-2) Lapidus, Ira (1988). *A History of Islamic Societies*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-77933-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77933-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** [Kennedy, Hugh](/source/Hugh_N._Kennedy) (1992). [*The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates*](https://archive.org/details/prophetagecaliph00kenn). Longman. p. [166](https://archive.org/details/prophetagecaliph00kenn/page/n182). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-582-40525-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** ["The Safavid Empire"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060427202257/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/). University of Calgary. Archived from [the original](https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/) on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 8 June 2006.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sammis_94-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sammis_94-1) Sammis, Kathy (2002). *Focus on World History: The First Global Age and the Age of Revolution*. J. Weston Walch. p. 39. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8251-4370-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8251-4370-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** Gasimov, Zaur (2022). "Observing Iran from Baku: Iranian Studies in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan". *Iranian Studies*. **55** (1): 38. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00210862.2020.1865136](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1865136). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [233889871](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233889871). The preoccupation with Iranian culture, literature, and language was widespread among Baku-, Ganja-, and Tiflis-based Shia as well as Sunni intellectuals, and it never ceased throughout the nineteenth century.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Gasimov1_96-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Gasimov1_96-1) Gasimov, Zaur (2022). "Observing Iran from Baku: Iranian Studies in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan". *Iranian Studies*. **55** (1): 37. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00210862.2020.1865136](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2020.1865136). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [233889871](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233889871). Azerbaijani national identity emerged in post-Persian Russian-ruled East Caucasia at the end of the nineteenth century, and was finally forged during the early Soviet period.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** Bishku, Michael B. (2022). "The Status and Limits to Aspirations of Minorities in the South Caucasus States". *Contemporary Review of the Middle East*. **9** (4): 414. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/23477989221115917](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23477989221115917). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [251777404](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251777404).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** Broers, Laurence (2019). *Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry*. Edinburgh University Press. p. 326 (note 9). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4744-5052-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-5052-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** Pourjavady, R. (2023). "Introduction: Iran, Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia in the 19th century". In Thomas, David; Chesworth, John A. (eds.). *Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History Volume 20. Iran, Afghanistan and the Caucasus (1800–1914)*. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** Азербайджанская Демократическая Республика (1918―1920). Законодательные акты. (Сборник документов). — Баку, 1998, С.188

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Swietochowski_Borderland_101-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Swietochowski_Borderland_101-1) Russia and a Divided Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition, by Tadeusz Świętochowski, Columbia University Press, 1995, p. 66

1. **[^](#cite_ref-smithmusavat_102-0)** Smith, Michael (April 2001). "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917–1920". *Journal of Contemporary History*. **36** (2): 228. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/002200940103600202](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200940103600202). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [159744435](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159744435). The results of the March events were immediate and total for the Musavat. Several hundreds of its members were killed in the fighting; up to 12,000 Muslim civilians perished; thousands of others fled Baku in a mass exodus

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Smith_103-0)** Michael Smith. ["Pamiat' ob utratakh i Azerbaidzhanskoe obshchestvo/Traumatic Loss and Azerbaijani. National Memory"](http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm). *Azerbaidzhan i Rossiia: obshchestva i gosudarstva (Azerbaijan and Russia: Societies and States)* (in Russian). Sakharov Center. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200401031542/http://old.sakharov-center.ru/publications/azrus/az_004.htm) from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** Atabaki, Touraj (2006). [*Iran and the First World War: Battleground of the Great Powers'*](https://books.google.com/books?id=M3adD9kNH1gC&pg=PA132). I.B.Tauris. p. 132. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86064-964-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-964-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170321184000/https://books.google.com/books?id=M3adD9kNH1gC&pg=PA132) from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Routledgeb_105-0)** Yilmaz, Harun (2015). *National Identities in Soviet Historiography: The Rise of Nations Under Stalin*. Routledge. p. 21. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-59664-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-59664-6). On May 27, the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (DRA) was declared with Ottoman military support. The rulers of the DRA refused to identify themselves as [Transcaucasian] Tatar, which they rightfully considered to be a Russian colonial definition. (...) Neighboring Iran did not welcome the DRA's adoption of the name of "Azerbaijan" for the country because it could also refer to Iranian Azerbaijan and implied a territorial claim.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sochineniya,_vol_II/1b_106-0)** Barthold, Vasily (1963). *Sochineniya, vol II/1*. Moscow. p. 706. (...) whenever it is necessary to choose a name that will encompass all regions of the Republic of Azerbaijan, name [Arran](/source/Arran_(Caucasus)) can be chosen. But the term Azerbaijan was chosen because when the Azerbaijan republic was created, it was assumed that this and the [Persian Azerbaijan](/source/Iranian_Azerbaijan) will be one entity because the population of both has a big similarity. On this basis, the word Azerbaijan was chosen. Of course right now when the word Azerbaijan is used, it has two meanings as Persian Azerbaijan and as a republic, its confusing and a question arises as to which Azerbaijan is talked about.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-I.B.Tauris_107-0)** Atabaki, Touraj (2000). *Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran*. I.B.Tauris. p. 25. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86064-554-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-554-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Amsterdam_University_Pressb_108-0)** Rezvani, Babak (2014). *Ethno-territorial conflict and coexistence in the Caucasus, Central Asia and Fereydan: academisch proefschrift*. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. p. 356. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-485-1928-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-485-1928-6). The region to the north of the river Araxes was not called Azerbaijan prior to 1918, unlike the region in northwestern Iran that has been called since so long ago.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-kazemzadeh_109-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-kazemzadeh_109-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-kazemzadeh_109-2) [Kazemzadeh, Firuz](/source/Firuz_Kazemzadeh) (1981) [1951]. *The Struggle for Transcaucasia: 1917–1921*. The New York Philosophical Library. pp. 124, 222, 229, 269–270. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8305-0076-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8305-0076-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-110)** Schulze, Reinhard (2000). *A Modern History of the Islamic World*. I.B. Tauris. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86064-822-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-822-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** Горянин, Александр (28 August 2003). [Очень черное золото](http://www.globalrus.ru/print_this/134413/) (in Russian). GlobalRus. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20030906163920/http://www.globalrus.ru/print_this/134413/) from the original on 6 September 2003. Retrieved 28 August 2003.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** Горянин, Александр. [История города Баку. Часть 3.](http://www.window2baku.com/001history_3.htm) (in Russian). Window2Baku. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170321183819/http://www.window2baku.com/001history_3.htm) from the original on 21 March 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** Pope, Hugh (2006). *Sons of the conquerors: the rise of the Turkic world*. New York: The Overlook Press. p. 116. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-58567-804-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58567-804-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-nichol_114-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-nichol_114-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-nichol_114-2) Nichol, James (1995). "Azerbaijan". In Curtis, Glenn E. (ed.). [*Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=B2W1YOG3N10C&pg=PA105). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8444-0848-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0848-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150320164609/http://books.google.com/books?id=B2W1YOG3N10C&pg=PA105) from the original on 20 March 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** Haider, Hans (2 January 2013). ["Gefährliche Töne im "Frozen War""](https://www.wienerzeitung.at/nachrichten/welt-europa/weltpolitik/513109_Gefaehrliche-Toene-im-Frozen-War.html). *Wiener Zeitung* (in German). Retrieved 18 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-116)** ["İşğaldan azad edilmiş şəhər və kəndlərimiz"](https://azertag.az/xeber/Isgaldan_azad_edilmis_seher_ve_kendlerimiz-1622227). *[Azerbaijan State News Agency](/source/Azerbaijan_State_News_Agency)* (in Azerbaijani). 1 December 2020. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201118125709/https://azertag.az/xeber/Isgaldan_azad_edilmis_seher_ve_kendlerimiz-1622227) from the original on 18 November 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** ["Statement by President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Prime Minister of the Republic of Armenia and President of the Russian Federation"](http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/64384). *[Kremlin.ru](/source/Kremlin.ru)*. 10 November 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-118)** Pistor-Hatam, Anja (20 July 2009). ["Sattār Khan"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sattar-khan-one-of-the-most-popular-heroes-from-tabriz-who-defended-the-town-during-the-lesser-autocracy-in-1908-09). Encyclopædia Iranica. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171117091146/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sattar-khan-one-of-the-most-popular-heroes-from-tabriz-who-defended-the-town-during-the-lesser-autocracy-in-1908-09) from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** Swietochowski, Tadeusz (1995). *Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition*. Columbia University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-07068-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07068-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** Hess, Gary. R. (March 1974). ["The Iranian Crisis of 1945–46 and the Cold War"](http://www.azargoshnasp.net/recent_history/atoor/theiraniancriris194546.pdf) (PDF). *Political Science Quarterly*. **89** (1): 117–146. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2148118](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2148118). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2148118](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2148118). [Archived](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090325231811/http://www.azargoshnasp.net/recent_history/atoor/theiraniancriris194546.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** "Turkic Peoples". *Encyclopedia Americana*. Vol. 27. Grolier. 1998. p. 276. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7172-0130-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7172-0130-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Matveeva_2002_122-0)** Anna Matveeva (2002). [The South Caucasus:Nationalism, Conflict and Minorities](https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/469cbfd90.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved 11 March 2021. The ethnic origins of the Azeris are unclear. The prevailing view is that Azeris are a Turkic people, but there is also a claim that Azeris are Turkicized Caucasians or, as the Iranian official history claims, Turkicized Aryans.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** [Kobishchanov, Yuri M.](/source/Yuri_Kobishchanov) (1979). [*Axum*](https://books.google.com/books?id=K4RyAAAAMAAJ&q=azerbaidjanians). Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 89. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-271-00531-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-00531-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210204225202/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4RyAAAAMAAJ&q=azerbaidjanians) from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** Roy, Olivier (2007). The new Central Asia. I.B. Tauris. p. 6. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84511-552-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-552-4). "The mass of the Oghuz who crossed the Amu Darya towards the west left the Iranian plateaux, which remained Persian, and established themselves more to the west, in Anatolia. Here they divided into Ottomans, who were Sunni and settled, and Turkmens, who were nomads and in part Shiite (or, rather, Alevi). The latter was to keep the name 'Turkmen' for a long time: from the 13th century onwards they 'Turkified' the Iranian populations of Azerbaijan (who spoke west Iranian languages such as Tat, which is still found in residual forms), thus creating a new identity based on Shiism and the use of Turkish. These are the people today known as Azeris."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** Frye, R. N. (15 December 2004). ["IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (1) A General Survey"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey). *[Encyclopædia Iranica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica)*. Retrieved 11 March 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Suny_126-0)** [Suny, Ronald G.](/source/Ronald_Grigor_Suny) (July–August 1988). "What Happened in Soviet Armenia?". *Middle East Report* (153, Islam and the State): 37–40. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3012134](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3012134). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3012134](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3012134). "The Albanians in the eastern plain leading down to the Caspian Sea mixed with the Turkish population and eventually became Muslims." "...while the eastern Transcaucasian countryside was home to a very large Turkic-speaking Muslim population. The Russians referred to them as Tartars, but we now consider them Azerbaijanis, a distinct people with their own language and culture."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cornell_2015_127-0)** Svante E. Cornell (20 May 2015). [*Azerbaijan Since Independence*](https://books.google.com/books?id=TaZzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7). Routledge. pp. 5–7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-47621-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-47621-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160517094253/https://books.google.com/books?id=TaZzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7) from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2015. "If native Caucasian, Iranian, and Turkic populations – among others – dominated Azerbaijan from the fourth century CE onwards, the Turkic element would grow increasingly dominant in linguistic terms,5 while the Persian element retained strong cultural and religious influence." "Following the Seljuk great power period, the Turkic element in Azerbaijan was further strengthened by migrations during the Mongol onslaught of the thirteenth century and the subsequent domination by the Turkmen Qaraqoyunlu and Aq-qoyunlu dynasties."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** Minorsky, V. "Azarbaijan". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). *Encyclopaedia of Islam* (2nd ed.). Brill.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-129)** Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). *The Iranian languages*. London: Routledgec. p. 15. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7007-1131-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1131-4). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [312730458](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/312730458).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-LANDS_OF_IRAN_130-0)** Planhol, Xavier de. ["IRAN i. LANDS OF IRAN"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran). *Encyclopædia Iranica*. Vol. XIII. pp. 204–212. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160517050350/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran) from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 30 December 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-peoples_survey_131-0)** Frye, R. N. ["IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (1) A General Survey"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey). *Encyclopædia Iranica*. Vol. XIII. pp. 321–326. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190517075943/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey) from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** Minorsky, V. "Azerbaijan". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; Donzel, E. van; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Brill.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-roy2_133-0)** [Roy, Olivier](/source/Olivier_Roy_(professor)) (2007). [*The new Central Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMcn6Ik1v0C&pg=PA7). I.B. Tauris. p. 6. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84511-552-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-552-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200803141204/https://books.google.com/books?id=-eMcn6Ik1v0C&pg=PA7) from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 8 May 2020. The mass of the Oghuz who crossed the Amu Darya towards the west left the [Iranian plateau](/source/Iranian_plateau), which remained Persian, and established themselves more to the west, in Anatolia. Here they divided into Ottomans, who were Sunni and settled, and Turkmens, who were nomads and in part Shiite (or, rather, Alevi). The latter were to keep the name 'Turkmen' for a long time: from the 13th century onwards they 'Turkised' the Iranian populations of Azerbaijan (who spoke west Iranian languages such as Tat, which is still found in residual forms), thus creating a new identity based on Shiism and the use of Turkish. These are the people today known as Azeris.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-134)** Yarshater, Ehsan (15 December 1988). ["AZERBAIJAN vii. The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-vii). *Encyclopædia Iranica*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130131081642/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-vii) from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 3 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** Sourdel, D. (1959). "V. MINORSKY, A History of Sharvan and Darband in the 10th–11th centuries, 1 vol. in-8°, 187 p. et 32 p. (texte arabe), Cambridge (Heffer and Sons), 1958". *Arabica*. **6** (3): 326–327. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/157005859x00208](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157005859x00208). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0570-5398](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0570-5398).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Rybakov, R. B.; Kapit︠s︡a, Mikhail Stepanovich (1995–2008). *Istorii︠a︡ Vostoka: v shesti tomakh*. Moscow: Izdatelʹskai︠a︡ firma "Vostochnai︠a︡ lit-ra" RAN. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-02-018102-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-02-018102-1). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [38520460](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/38520460).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** Weitenberg, J.J.S. (1984). "Thomas J. SAMUELIAN (ed.), Classical Armenian Culture. Influences and Creativity. Proceedings of the first Dr. H. Markarian Conference on Armenian culture (University of Pennsylvania Armenian Texts and Studies 4), Scholars Press, Chico, CA 1982, xii and 233 pp., paper $ 15,75 (members $ 10,50), cloth $ 23,50 (members $ 15,75)". *Journal for the Study of Judaism*. **15** (1–2): 198–199. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/157006384x00411](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157006384x00411). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0047-2212](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0047-2212).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-138)** Suny, Ronald G.; Stork, Joe (July 1988). "Ronald G. Suny: What Happened in Soviet Armenia?". *Middle East Report* (153): 37–40. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3012134](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3012134). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0899-2851](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0899-2851). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3012134](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3012134).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** David Blow. *Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend.* p. 165. "The primary court language remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istambul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the **Qizilbash Turkomans**..."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** Al Mas'udi (1894). De Goeje, M.J. (ed.). *Kitab al-Tanbih wa-l-Ishraf* (in Arabic). Brill. pp. 77–78. Arabic text: "قد قدمنا فيما سلف من كتبنا ما قاله الناس في بدء النسل، وتفرقهم على وجه الأرض، وما ذهب إليه كل فريق منهم في ذلك من الشرعيين وغيرهم ممن قال بحدوث العالم وأبى الانقياد إلى الشرائع من البراهمة وغيرهم، وما قاله أصحاب القدم في ذلك من الهند والفلاسفة وأصحاب الاثنين من المانوية وغيرهم على تباينهم في ذلك، فلنذكر الآن الأمم السبع ذهب من عني بأخبار سوالف الأمم ومساكنهم إلى أن أجل الأمم وعظماءهم كانوا في سوالف الدهر سبعاً يتميزون بثلاثة أشياء: بشيمهم الطبيعية، وخلقهم الطبيعية، وألسنتهم فالفرس أمة حد بلادها الجبال من الماهات وغيرها وآذربيجان إلى ما يلي بلاد أرمينية وأران والبيلقان إلى دربند وهو الباب والأبواب والري وطبرستن والمسقط والشابران وجرجان وابرشهر، وهي نيسابور، وهراة ومرو وغير ذلك من بلاد خراسان وسجستان وكرمان وفارس والأهواز، وما اتصل بذلك من أرض الأعاجم في هذا الوقت وكل هذه البلاد كانت مملكة واحدة ملكها ملك واحد ولسانها واحد، إلا أنهم كانوا يتباينون في شيء يسير من اللغات."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** ["Various Zoroastrian Fire-Temples"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060430091558/http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/FireTemple.htm). University of Calgary. 1 February 2000. Archived from [the original](http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~volk/sylvia/FireTemple.htm) on 30 April 2006. Retrieved 8 June 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** Geukjian, Ohannes (2012). [*Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZLxt6LsgKUC&q=Zoroastrianism+in+Azerbaijan&pg=PA26). Ashgate Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4094-3630-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-3630-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210204225106/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZLxt6LsgKUC&q=Zoroastrianism+in+Azerbaijan&pg=PA26) from the original on 4 February 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** Suny, Ronald G. (April 1996). [*Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia*](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B2W1YOG3N10C). DIANE Publishing. p. [106](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_B2W1YOG3N10C/page/n158). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7881-2813-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-2813-4). Retrieved 18 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** Frye, R. N. (15 December 2004). ["Peoples of Iran"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey). Encyclopædia Iranica. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190517075943/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey) from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-eb_145-0)** ["Azerbaijani (people)"](https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46833/Azerbaijani). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141006093258/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/46833/Azerbaijani) from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** Schulze, Wolfgang (2001–2002). ["The Udi Language"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120205043611/http://www.lrz.de/~wschulze/Udigen1.htm). University of Munich. Archived from [the original](http://www.lrz.de/~wschulze/Udigen1.htm) on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Taskent_et_al_2017_147-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Taskent_et_al_2017_147-1) Taskent RO, Gokcumen O (2017). "The Multiple Histories of Western Asia: Perspectives from Ancient and Modern Genomes". *Hum Biol*. **89** (2): 107–117. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.13110/humanbiology.89.2.01](https://doi.org/10.13110%2Fhumanbiology.89.2.01). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29299965](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29299965). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [6871226](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6871226).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** Mezzavilla, Massimo; Vozzi, Diego; Pirastu, Nicola; Girotto, Giorgia; d'Adamo, Pio; Gasparini, Paolo; Colonna, Vincenza (5 December 2014). ["Genetic landscape of populations along the Silk Road: admixture and migration patterns"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4267745). *BMC Genetics*. **15** (1): 131. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1186/s12863-014-0131-6](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12863-014-0131-6). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1471-2156](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-2156). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4267745](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4267745). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25476266](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25476266).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-nasidze_149-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-nasidze_149-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-nasidze_149-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-nasidze_149-3) Nasidze, Ivan; Sarkisian, Tamara; Kerimov, Azer; Stoneking, Mark (2003). ["Testing hypotheses of language replacement in the Caucasus"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070315195125/http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Y-paper.pdf) (PDF). *Human Genetics*. **112** (3): 255–261. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00439-002-0874-4](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00439-002-0874-4). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12596050](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12596050). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [13232436](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13232436). Archived from [the original](http://www.eva.mpg.de/genetics/pdf/Y-paper.pdf) (PDF) on 15 March 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-andonian_150-0)** Andonian l.; et al. (2011). ["Iranian Azeri's Y-Chromosomal Diversity in the Context of Turkish-Speaking Populations of the Middle East"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111127222342/http://www.ijph.ir/pdfs/17.%20Dr_Laris_1st_edit_Re_3_.pdf) (PDF). *Iranian J Publ Health*. **40** (1): 119–123. [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3481719](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3481719). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23113065](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23113065). Archived from [the original](http://www.ijph.ir/pdfs/17.%20Dr_Laris_1st_edit_Re_3_.pdf) (PDF) on 27 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** Asadova, P. S.; et al. (2003). "Genetic Structure of Iranian-Speaking Populations from Azerbaijan Inferred from the Frequencies of Immunological and Biochemical Gene Markers". *Russian Journal of Genetics*. **39** (11): 1334–1342. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1023/B:RUGE.0000004149.62114.92](https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3ARUGE.0000004149.62114.92). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [40679768](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40679768).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; Metspalu, Ene; Valeev, Albert; Litvinov, Sergei; Valiev, Ruslan; Akhmetova, Vita; Balanovska, Elena; Balanovsky, Oleg; Turdikulova, Shahlo; Dalimova, Dilbar (21 April 2015). ["The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4405460). *PLOS Genetics*. **11** (4) e1005068. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pgen.1005068). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1553-7404](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1553-7404). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [4405460](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4405460). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25898006](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25898006). Our ADMIXTURE analysis (Fig 2) revealed that Turkic-speaking populations scattered across Eurasia tend to share most of their genetic ancestry with their current geographic non-Turkic neighbors. This is particularly obvious for Turkic peoples in Anatolia, Iran, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe, but more difficult to determine for northeastern Siberian Turkic speakers, Yakuts and Dolgans, for which non-Turkic reference populations are absent. We also found that a higher proportion of Asian genetic components distinguishes the Turkic speakers all over West Eurasia from their immediate non-Turkic neighbors. These results support the model that expansion of the Turkic language family outside its presumed East Eurasian core area occurred primarily through language replacement, perhaps by the elite dominance scenario, that is, intrusive Turkic nomads imposed their language on indigenous peoples due to advantages in military and/or social organization.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-220)** (in Russian) [Igor Dobayev](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%98%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87). *Radicalisation of Islamic Movements in Central Asia and the North Caucasus: A Comparative Political Analysis*. [Chapter IV: Islam and Islamism in the Republic of Dagestan](http://do.gendocs.ru/docs/index-36795.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130316050837/http://do.gendocs.ru/docs/index-36795.html) 16 March 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). СКНЦ ВШ ЮФУ: Moscow, 2010.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-221)** [Boyle, Kevin](/source/Kevin_Boyle_(lawyer)); Sheen, Juliet (1997). [*Freedom of Religion and Belief*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MFUZkWWgOtMC). Routledge. p. 273. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-15978-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-15978-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160517173620/https://books.google.com/books?id=MFUZkWWgOtMC) from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2015.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-225)** Barbara West. [Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania](https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA72) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160522022409/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA72) 22 May 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). Infobase Publishing, 2009, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-4381-1913-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4381-1913-5); p. 72.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-229)** ["Hossein Alizadeh Personal Reflections on Playing Tar"](http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/54_folder/54_articles/54_alizadeh.html). *Azerbaijan International*. Winter 1997. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120303162351/http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/54_folder/54_articles/54_alizadeh.html) from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-sport_230-0)** ["Sport History in Azerbaijan"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110625053745/http://www.azerbaijan.az/portal/Society/Sport/sport_e.html). Heydar Aliyev Foundation. Archived from [the original](http://azerbaijan.az/portal/Society/Sport/sport_e.html) on 25 June 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MinistrySports_231-0)** Deck, Laurel (Winter 1996). ["The Ministry of Youth and Sports"](http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/44_folder/44_articles/44_sports.html). *Azerbaijan International*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20060508022556/http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/44_folder/44_articles/44_sports.html) from the original on 8 May 2006. Retrieved 11 June 2006.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-233)** ["Tourism and sport"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120217104040/http://www.azembassy.it/browse.php?lang=eng&page=0005). Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Italy. Archived from [the original](http://www.azembassy.it/browse.php?lang=eng&page=0005) on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2012.

### Cited sources

- [Akhriev, N. G.](/source/Nureddin_Akhriev) (1975). "Исконные имена чеченцев и ингушей" [Original names of Chechens and Ingush]. [*Сборник статей и материалов по вопросам нахского языкознания. Известия ЧИНИИИЯЛ*](https://www.twirpx.com/file/3327379/grant/) [*Collection of articles and materials on questions of Nakh linguistics. Izvestia CHINIIIYAL*] (in Russian). Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). [Grozny](/source/Grozny): ChI kn. izd-vo. pp. 199–212.

- Chaumont, M. L. (15 December 1987). [*Atropates*](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atropates-aturpat-lit). Vol. III. Encyclopædia Iranica. pp. 17–18.

- de Planhol, Xavier (15 December 2004). [*Iran i. Lands of Iran*](https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-i-lands-of-iran). Vol. XIII. Encyclopædia Iranica. pp. 204–212.

- Kurkiev, A. S. (1979). [*Основные вопросы лексикологии ингушского языка*](https://dzurdzuki.com/download/kurkiev-a-s-osnovnye-voprosy-leksikologii-ingushskogo-yazyka-1979g/) [*The main questions of the lexicology of the Ingush language*] (in Russian). [Grozny](/source/Grozny): ChI kn. izd-vo. pp. 1–254.

- Swietochowski, Tadeusz; Collins, Brian C. (1999). *Historical Dictionary of Azerbaijan*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-3550-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-3550-4).

## External links

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Russia and Crimea) Crimean Karaites subgroups Bulgarian Crimean Tatars Finnish Tatars Gagauz Lipka Tatars Dobrujan Tatars Extinct Turkic groups Alat Az Basmyl Barsils Berendei Bulaqs Bulgars Chigils Black Klobuks Cumans Dingling Duolu Dughlats Esegel Göktürks Kangly Karluks Keraites Khazars Kimek Kipchaks Sir-Kıvchak Kurykans Kutrigurs Merkit Naimans Nushibi Oghuz Turks Turkomans Pechenegs Onogurs Sabirs Saragurs Shatuo Tiele Türgesh Tuhsi Torks Toquz Oghuz Uriankhai Utigurs Xueyantuo Yenisei Kyrgyz Yueban Yagma Yabaku Others Abdals Afghan Qizilbash Ghilji Hazaras Kureyshan Mughals Diasporas Azerbaijani diaspora Crimean Tatar diaspora Turkish diaspora Turkish Cypriot diaspora Kazakh diaspora 1 Central Asian (i.e. Turkmeni, Afghani and Iranian) Turkmens, distinct from Levantine (i.e. Iraqi and Syrian) Turkmen/Turkoman minorities, who mostly adhere to an Ottoman-Turkish heritage and identity, and Akto Turkmen, who mostly adhere to a Kyrgyz heritage and identity. 2 In traditional areas of Turkish settlement (i.e. former Ottoman territories). v t e Muslims in Europe Majority Indo-European Albanians Cham Albanians Bosniaks Gorani Kurds in Germany in France in the Netherlands Muslims Pomaks Talysh Tats Turkic Azerbaijanis Balkars Bashkirs Crimean Tatars Crimean Roma Dobrujan Tatars Finnish Tatars Karachays Kazakhs Kumyks Lipka Tatars Nogais Tatars in Bulgaria Turks Cypriot Dodecanese German Meskhetian Western Thracian Other Volga Tatars Mishar Tatars Yörüks North Caucasian Abazins Abkhazians Sadz Andis Akhvakhs Bagvalals Botlikhs Chamalals Godoberis Karatas Tindis Avars Chechens Aukhs Kists Circassians Abzakhs Besleneys Bzhedugs Chemirgoys Kabardians Natukhajs Shapsugs Ubykhs Dargins Kaitags Kubachins Tsudakhars Chirags Ingush Laks Lezgins Aghuls Archis Budukh Rutulians Khinalugs Kryts Tabasarans Tsakhurs Jeks Tsez Bezhtas Hinukhs Hunzibs Khwarshis Kartvelian Lazs Ingiloys Uralic Besermyan Other Arabs in Europe Moors in Spain Berbers in France in Belgium in the Netherlands Dönmeh Minority Afghans Bengalis Bulgarian Croats Georgians Adjarians Meskhetians Greek Vallahades Cretan Hemshenis Macedonian Maghrebis Pakistanis Megleno-Romanians Ossetians Romani Arlije Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians Crimean Roma Serbs v t e Ethnic groups in the Caucasus Caucasian (areal) Kartvelian Georgians Karts Adjarians Dvals Gurians Imeretians Imerkhevians Ingiloys Javakhians Kakhetians Khevsurians Lechkhumians Meskhetians Mokhevians Mtiuletians Pshavians Rachians Tushetians Zans/Colchians Lazs Mingrelians Svans Northeast (Caspian) Avar–Andic Andis Akhvakhs Avars Bagvalals Botlikhs Chamalals Godoberis Karatas Tindis Lezgic Aguls Archin Budukhs Jeks Kryts Lezgins Rutulians Tabasarans Tsakhurs Udis Nakh Bats Tsova Tushetians Chechens Kists Aukhs Ingush Tsezic (Didoic) Bezhtas Hinukhs Hunzibs Khwarshis Tsez Others Dargins Kaitags Kubachins [ru] Khinalugs Laks Northwest (Pontic) Abazins Abkhazians Sadz Akhchipsou Circassians Abzakhs Besleneys Bzhedugs Chemirgoys Cherkess Kabardians Natukhajs Shapsugs Ubykhs Indo- European Armenian Armenians Armeno-Tats Cherkesogai Homshetsi Zoks Lom Hellenic Caucasus Greeks Georgian Urums Pontic Greeks in Armenia in Azerbaijan in Georgia Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Garachi Loms Roma Iranian Kurds in Armenia Yazidis in Azerbaijan in Georgia Yazidis in Russia Ossetians Digors Irons Kudar Trialeti Ossetians in Georgia in Turkey Talysh Tats Slavic Cossacks Don Cossacks Kuban Cossacks Terek Cossacks Greben Cossacks Poles in Armenia in Azerbaijan in Georgia Russians Doukhobors Molokans in Armenia Azerbaijan in Georgia Ukrainians in Armenia in Kuban, Russia Others Germans Turkic Kipchaks Balkars Karachays Kumyks Nogais Ak Nogai Karagash Oghuz Turks Azerbaijanis Ayrums Karadaghis Shahsevan in Russia in Dagestan Bayats Qajars Karapapakhs Küresünni Meskhetian Turks Others Arabs Assyrians in Armenia in Azerbaijan in Georgia Jews Abkhaz Jews Armenian Jews Azerbaijani Jews Georgian Jews Mountain Jews Kalmyks Ethnic minorities in Armenia Ethnic minorities in Azerbaijan Ethnic minorities in Georgia Ethnic minorities in Russia v t e Ethnic groups in Azerbaijan Afshars Arabs Armenians Baku Nakhchivan Armeno-Tats Akhvakhs Assyrians Ayrums Azerbaijanis Avars Georgians Garachi Germans Greeks Jews Ashkenazi Mountain Karadaghis Kurds Sheylanli Lezgins Meskhetian Turks Padars Poles Qarapapaqs Russians Rutulians Serbs Talysh Tatars Tats Terekemes Tsakhur Turks Shahdagh people Budukh Jek Khinalug Kryts Udi See Also: Demographics of Azerbaijan

Authority control databases International FAST National United States France BnF data Czech Republic Israel Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine Yale LUX

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