# Avoidance speech

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Sociolinguistic phenomena

Not to be confused with [censorship](/source/Censorship).

**Avoidance speech** is a group of sociolinguistic phenomena in which a special restricted speech style must be used in the presence of or in reference to certain relatives, or in certain situations. Avoidance speech is found in many [Australian Aboriginal](/source/Australian_Aboriginal_languages)[1] and [Austronesian languages](/source/Austronesian_languages)[2] as well as some [North American languages](/source/North_American_languages) such as [Anishinaabe-mowin](/source/Ojibwe_language),[3] [Highland East Cushitic languages](/source/Highland_East_Cushitic_languages)[4] and [Southern Bantu languages](/source/Bantu_languages).[5] Chinese [naming taboo](/source/Naming_taboo) prohibits speaking and writing syllables or characters that appear in the names of esteemed people, such as emperors, parents, and ancestors.

Avoidance speech styles tend to have the same [phonology](/source/Phonology) and [grammar](/source/Grammar) as the standard language they are a part of. The [lexicon](/source/Lexicon), however, tends to be smaller than in normal speech since the styles are only used for limited communication.

## Australia

See also: [Taboo on naming the dead](/source/Taboo_on_naming_the_dead)

### Mother-in-law languages

Avoidance speech in [Australian Aboriginal languages](/source/Australian_Aboriginal_languages) is closely tied to elaborate tribal kinship systems in which certain relatives are considered [taboo](/source/Taboo). Avoidance relations differ from tribe to tribe in terms of strictness and to whom they apply. Typically, there is an avoidance relationship between a man and his mother-in-law, usually between a woman and her father-in-law, and sometimes between any person and their same-sex parent-in-law. For some tribes, avoidance relationships are extended to other family members, such as the mother-in-law's brother in [Warlpiri](/source/Warlpiri_language) or [cross-cousins](/source/Parallel_and_cross_cousins) in [Dyirbal](/source/Dyirbal_language). All relations are [classificatory](/source/Classificatory_kinship) – more people may fall into the "mother-in-law" category than just a man's wife's mother.[6]

Avoidance speech styles used with taboo relatives are often called **mother-in-law languages**, although they are not actually separate languages but separate [lexical sets](/source/Lexical_set) with the same [grammar](/source/Grammar) and [phonology](/source/Phonology). Typically, the taboo lexical set has a one-to-many correspondence with the everyday set. For example, in Dyirbal the avoidance style has one word, *jijan*, for all lizards, while the everyday style differentiates many varieties. In [Guugu Yimidhirr](/source/Guugu_Yimithirr_language) the avoidance speech verb *bali-l* "travel" covers several everyday verbs meaning "go", "walk", "crawl", "paddle", "float, sail, drift", and "limp along". Corresponding avoidance and everyday words are generally not linguistically related. Avoidance forms tend to be longer than everyday forms.[7]

In some areas, the avoidance style is used by both members of the avoidance relationship; in others the senior member may talk to the junior in everyday style. Behavior associated with avoidance speech is a continuum and varies between tribes. For the [Dyirbal people](/source/Dyirbal_people), a man and his mother-in-law may not make eye contact, face one another or directly talk to each other. Rather, they must address a third person or even a nearby object. For slightly less restricted relationships, such as between a man and his father-in-law, avoidance style is used and must be spoken in a slow, soft voice. An extreme case of avoidance behavior is found in the [Umpila](/source/Umpila_language), in which a man and his mother-in-law may not speak at all in each other's presence.[8]

### Secret languages

Children in these cultures acquire avoidance speech forms as part of their normal language development, learning with whom to use them at a fairly young age.[9] Additionally, a few languages have another style, called a "secret language" or "mystic language", that is taught to boys as part of initiation rituals, and is only used between men.[10]

## Africa

A special system of avoidance vocabulary is traditionally used by married women speaking [Highland East Cushitic languages](/source/Highland_East_Cushitic_languages) in southwestern Ethiopia. In [Kambaata](/source/Kambaata_language) and [Sidamo](/source/Sidamo_language), this system is called *ballishsha*, and includes physical and linguistic avoidance of parents-in-law.[11] Women who practice *ballishsha* do not pronounce any words beginning with the same syllable as the name of their husband's mother or father.[12] Instead, they may use [paraphrase](/source/Paraphrase), synonyms or semantically similar words, antonyms, or [borrowings](/source/Loanword) from other languages.[13]

*Ukuhlonipha* is a traditional system of avoidance speech in [Nguni Bantu languages](/source/Nguni_languages) of southern Africa including [Zulu](/source/Zulu_language), [Xhosa](/source/Xhosa_language) and [Swazi](/source/Swazi_language), as well as Sotho.[14] This special speech style and correlating respectful behaviors may be used in many contexts, but is most strongly associated with married women in respect to their father-in-law and other senior male relatives. Women who practice *ukuhlonipha* may not say the names of these men or any words with the same [root](/source/Root_(linguistics)) as their names.[15] They avoid the taboo words phonologically (substituting sounds) or lexically (replacing words with synonyms, etc.). The *ukuhlonipha* system also includes avoidance of the names of certain relatives by all speakers and physical avoidance of certain relatives.[16]

## See also

- [Bear § Etymology](/source/Bear#Etymology) (widely agreed to involve avoidance)

- [Noa-name](/source/Noa-name): A word used instead of a taboo or dangerous word

- [Australian Aboriginal sign languages](/source/Australian_Aboriginal_sign_languages)

- [Minced oath](/source/Minced_oath)

- [Euphemism](/source/Euphemism)

- [Honorifics (linguistics)](/source/Honorifics_(linguistics))

- [Pandanus language](/source/Pandanus_language)

- [Damin](/source/Damin): Australian ritual language

- [Pequeninos](/source/Pequeninos): fictional race from the post-*[Ender's Game](/source/Ender's_Game)* trilogy; the ambulatory males and females avoid most direct communication, and use separate language styles otherwise.

- [Taboo against naming the dead](/source/Taboo_against_naming_the_dead)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon1980_1-0)** [Dixon 1980](#CITEREFDixon1980).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESimons1982157–226_2-0)** [Simons 1982](#CITEREFSimons1982), pp. 157–226.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Brave Bird, Mary (27 January 2009). *Ohitika Woman*. Grove Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0802143396](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0802143396).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreis2005_4-0)** [Treis 2005](#CITEREFTreis2005).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert1990_5-0)** [Herbert 1990](#CITEREFHerbert1990).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon198058–59_6-0)** [Dixon 1980](#CITEREFDixon1980), pp. 58–59.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon198061–64_7-0)** [Dixon 1980](#CITEREFDixon1980), pp. 61–64.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon198059–60_8-0)** [Dixon 1980](#CITEREFDixon1980), pp. 59–60.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon198060_9-0)** [Dixon 1980](#CITEREFDixon1980), p. 60.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDixon198065–68_10-0)** [Dixon 1980](#CITEREFDixon1980), pp. 65–68.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETefera198744–59_11-0)** [Tefera 1987](#CITEREFTefera1987), pp. 44–59.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreis2005292–294_12-0)** [Treis 2005](#CITEREFTreis2005), pp. 292–294.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreis2005295_13-0)** [Treis 2005](#CITEREFTreis2005), p. 295.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert1990456_14-0)** [Herbert 1990](#CITEREFHerbert1990), p. 456.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert1990457–459_15-0)** [Herbert 1990](#CITEREFHerbert1990), pp. 457–459.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerbert1990460–461_16-0)** [Herbert 1990](#CITEREFHerbert1990), pp. 460–461.

## References

- Dixon, R. M. W. (1980). "Speech and song styles: Avoidance styles". *The languages of Australia*. Vol. Section 3.3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–65.

- Fandrych, Ingrid. "Between tradition and the requirements of modern life: Hlonipha in southern Bantu societies, with special reference to Lesotho." *Journal of Language and Culture* 3, no. 4 (2012): 67-73.

- Goddard, Ives (1979). "South Texas and the lower Rio Grande". In Campbell, L.; Mithun, M. (eds.). *The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment*. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 355–389.

- Finlayson, Rosalie. "Hlonipha—the women's language of avoidance among the Xhosa." *South African Journal of African Languages* 2, no. 1 (1982): 35-60.

- Herbert, Robert K. (1990). "*Hlonipha* and the Ambiguous Woman". *Anthropos*. **85** (85): 455–473. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40463571](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40463571).

- Hoijer, Harry (1945). "The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes". *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **11** (4): 193–203. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/463871](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F463871). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [143582901](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143582901).

- Luthuli, Thobekile Patience. *Assessing politeness, language and gender in hlonipha.* PhD diss., 2007.

- McGrath, Pam; Phillips, Emma (2008). "Australian findings on Aboriginal cultural practices associated with clothing, hair, possessions and use of name of deceased persons". *International Journal of Nursing Practice*. **14** (1): 57–66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1440-172X.2007.00667.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1440-172X.2007.00667.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18190485](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18190485).

- Mous, Maarten. 2015. Laws of in-law-languages. [Online](https://www.eva.mpg.de/fileadmin/content_files/linguistics/conferences/2015-diversity-linguistics/Mous_slides.pdf)

- O'Connor, Mary Catherine (1990). "Third-person reference in Northern Pomo conversation: The indexing of discourse genre and social relations". *International Journal of American Linguistics*. **56** (3): 377–409. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/466164](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F466164). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144782956](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144782956).

- Prabhakaran, Varijakshi. "Hlonipha in Dravidian Languages and Society?." *Language Matters* (1998): 117-131.

- Rudwick, Stephanie, and Magcino Shange. "Hlonipha and the rural Zulu woman." *Agenda* 23, no. 82 (2009): 66-75.

- Simons, Gary (1982). ["Word taboo and comparative Austronesian linguistics"](https://scholars.sil.org/sites/scholars/files/gary_f_simons/reprint/word_taboo.pdf) (PDF). *Pacific Linguistics* (C–76): 157–226. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210702153758/https://scholars.sil.org/sites/scholars/files/gary_f_simons/reprint/word_taboo.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2021.

- Tefera, Anbessa (1987). "Ballissha: Women's Speech Among the Sidama". *Journal of Ethiopian Studies*. **XX**: 44–59.

- Treis, Yvonne (2005). "Avoiding their names, avoiding their eyes: How Kambaata women respect their in-laws". *Anthropological Linguistics*. **47** (3): 292–320. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [25132339](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25132339).

- Zungu, Phyllis. "Some aspects of hlonipha in Zulu society." *Language Matters* (1997): 171-181.

## External links

- [Lecture notes on Dyirbal illustrating mother-in-law language](https://web.archive.org/web/20021227140334/http://www.hku.hk/linguist/program/world8.html)

- [One of three "LanguageHat" blog posts on the topic](http://www.languagehat.com/archives/002263.php)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Avoidance speech](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoidance_speech) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avoidance_speech?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.