# Australian English

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For Australians of English descent, see [English Australians](/source/English_Australians).

**Australian English** (əˈstɹæɪljən ˈɪŋɡləʃ; **AusE**, **AusEng**, **AuE**, **AuEng**, **en-AU**) is the set of [varieties](/source/Variety_(linguistics)) of the [English language](/source/English_language) native to [Australia](/source/Australia). It is the country's [common language](/source/Common_language) and *de facto* [national language](/source/National_language). While Australia has no [official language](/source/Official_language), English is the [first language](/source/First_language) of [the majority of the population](/source/Languages_of_Australia), and has been entrenched as the *de facto* national language since the onset of [British settlement](/source/History_of_Australia_(1788%E2%80%931850)), being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of [Australians](/source/Australians) in 2021.[3] It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts.

Australian English began to diverge from [British](/source/British_English) and [Hiberno-English](/source/Hiberno-English) after the [First Fleet](/source/First_Fleet) established the [Colony of New South Wales](/source/Colony_of_New_South_Wales) in 1788. Australian English arose from a [dialectal melting pot](/source/Koin%C3%A9_language) created by the intermingling of early settlers who were from a variety of dialectal regions of [Great Britain](/source/Great_Britain) and [Ireland](/source/Ireland),[4] though its most significant influences were [the dialects of Southern England](/source/English_language_in_Southern_England).[5] By the 1820s, the native-born colonists' speech was recognisably distinct from speakers in Britain and Ireland.[6]

Australian English differs from other varieties in its [phonology](/source/Phonology), [pronunciation](/source/Pronunciation), [lexicon](/source/Lexicon), [idiom](/source/Idiom), [grammar](/source/Grammar) and [spelling](/source/Spelling).[7] Australian English is relatively consistent across the continent, although it encompasses numerous [regional and sociocultural varieties](/source/Variation_in_Australian_English). "General Australian" describes the *de facto* [standard dialect](/source/Standard_language), which is perceived to be free of pronounced regional or sociocultural [markers](/source/Markedness) and is often used in the media.

## History

Similar to [early American English](/source/American_English#History), Australian English passed through a process of extensive [dialect levelling](/source/Dialect_levelling) and [mixing](/source/Koin%C3%A9_language) which produced a relatively homogeneous new variety of English which was easily understood by all.[4]

The earliest Australian English was spoken by the first generation of native-born colonists in the [Colony of New South Wales](/source/Colony_of_New_South_Wales) from the end of the 18th century. These native-born children were exposed to a wide range of dialects from across the [British Isles](/source/British_Isles). The dialects of [Southern England](/source/Southern_England), including most notably the traditional [Cockney](/source/Cockney) dialect of London, were particularly influential on the development of the new variety and constituted "the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing" Australian English. All the other regions of England were represented among the early colonists. A large proportion of early convicts and colonists were from Ireland (comprising 25% of the total convict population), and many of them spoke [Irish](/source/Irish_language) as a sole or [first language](/source/First_language). They were joined by other non-native speakers of English from the [Scottish Highlands](/source/Scottish_Highlands) and [Wales](/source/Wales). [Peter Miller Cunningham](/source/Peter_Miller_Cunningham)'s 1827 book *Two Years in New South Wales* described the distinctive accent and vocabulary that had developed among the native-born colonists.[5]

The first of the [Australian gold rushes](/source/Australian_gold_rushes) in the 1850s began a large wave of [immigration](/source/Immigration_history_of_Australia), during which about two percent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of [New South Wales](/source/Colony_of_New_South_Wales) and [Victoria](/source/Colony_of_Victoria).[8] The Gold Rushes brought immigrants and linguistic influences from many parts of the world. An example was the introduction of vocabulary from [American English](/source/American_English), including some terms later considered to be typically Australian, such as *bushwhacker* and *squatter*.[9] This American influence was continued with the popularity of American films from the early 20th century and the influx of American military personnel that settled in [Australia](/source/Australia) and [New Zealand](/source/New_Zealand) during [World War II](/source/World_War_II); seen in the enduring persistence of such universally-accepted terms as *[okay](/source/Okay)* and *guys*.[10]

The publication of [Edward Ellis Morris](/source/Edward_Ellis_Morris)'s *Austral English: A Dictionary Of Australasian Words, Phrases And Usages* in 1898, which extensively catalogued Australian English vocabulary, started a wave of academic interest and codification during the 20th century which resulted in Australian English becoming established as an [endonormative](/source/Schneider's_dynamic_model) variety with its own internal norms and standards. This culminated in publications such as the 1981 first edition of the *[Macquarie Dictionary](/source/Macquarie_Dictionary)*, a major English language dictionary based on Australian usage, and the 1988 first edition of *[The Australian National Dictionary](/source/The_Australian_National_Dictionary)*, a historical dictionary documenting the history of Australian English vocabulary and idiom.

## Phonology and pronunciation

Main article: [Australian English phonology](/source/Australian_English_phonology)

The most obvious way in which Australian English is distinctive from other varieties of English is through its unique pronunciation. It shares most similarity with [New Zealand English](/source/New_Zealand_English).[11] Like most dialects of English, it is distinguished primarily by the phonetic quality of its vowels.[12]

### Vowels

The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include [monophthongs](/source/Monophthong) and [diphthongs](/source/Diphthong), mostly correspond to the [tense vowels](/source/Tense_vowel) used in analyses of [Received Pronunciation](/source/Received_Pronunciation) (RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels.

There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English [phonemic length distinction](/source/Vowel_length), which is also present in some regional south-eastern dialects of the UK and eastern seaboard dialects in the US.[13] An example of this feature is the distinction between *ferry* /ˈfeɹiː/ and *fairy* /ˈfeːɹiː/.

As with New Zealand English and General American English, the [weak-vowel merger](/source/Weak-vowel_merger) is complete in Australian English: unstressed /ɪ/ is merged into /ə/ ([schwa](/source/Schwa)), unless it is followed by a velar consonant. Examples of this feature are the following pairings, which are pronounced identically in Australian English: *Rosa's* and *roses*, as well as *Lennon* and *Lenin*. Other examples are the following pairs, which rhyme in Australian English: *abbott* with *rabbit*, and *dig it* with *bigot*.

Most varieties of Australian English exhibit only a partial [trap-bath split](/source/Trap-bath_split). The words *bath*, *grass* and *can't* are always pronounced with the "long" /ɐː/ of *father*. Throughout the majority of the country, the "flat" /æ/ of *man* is the dominant pronunciation for the *a* vowel in the following words: *dance*, *advance*, *plant*, *example* and *answer*. The exception is the state of [South Australia](/source/South_Australia), where a more advanced trap-bath split is found, and where the dominant pronunciation of all the preceding words incorporates the "long" /ɐː/ of *father*.

monophthongs diphthongs short vowels long vowels IPA examples IPA examples IPA examples ʊ foot, hood, chook ʉː[nb 1] goose, boo, who'd ɪə near, beard, hear[nb 2] ɪ kit, bid, hid, iː[nb 3] fleece, bead, heat æɔ mouth, bowed, how'd e/ɛ dress, led, head eː/ɛː square, bared, haired əʉ goat, bode, hoed ə comma, about, winter ɜː nurse, bird, heard æɪ face, bait, made æ trap, lad, had æː bad, sad, mad ɑe price, bite, hide ɐ strut, bud, hud ɐː start, palm, bath oɪ choice, boy, oil ɔ lot, cloth, hot oː thought, north, force

### Consonants

There is little variation in the sets of [consonants](/source/Consonant) used in different English dialects but there are variations in how these consonants are used. Australian English is no exception.

Australian English consonant phonemes[14] Labial Dental Alveolar Post- alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal m n ŋ Plosive fortis p t k lenis b d ɡ Affricate fortis tʃ lenis dʒ Fricative fortis f θ s ʃ h lenis v ð z ʒ Approximant median ɹ j w lateral l

Australian English is uniformly [non-rhotic](/source/Rhoticity_in_English); that is, the /ɹ/ sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant.[6] As with many non-rhotic dialects, [linking /ɹ/](/source/Linking_R) can occur when a word that has a final in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. An [intrusive /ɹ/](/source/Linking_and_intrusive_R#Intrusive_R) may similarly be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have in the spelling in certain environments, namely after the long vowel /oː/ and after word final /ə/. This can be heard in "law-r-and order", where an intrusive R is voiced between the AW and the A.

As with North American English, [intervocalic alveolar flapping](/source/Intervocalic_alveolar_flapping) is a feature of Australian English: prevocalic /t/ and /d/ surface as the [alveolar tap](/source/Alveolar_tap) [ɾ] after [sonorants](/source/Sonorant) other than /m, ŋ/ as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel in the same breath group. Examples of this feature are that the following pairs are pronounced similarly or identically: *latter* and *ladder*, as well as *rated* and *raided*.

[*Yod*-dropping](/source/English_consonant-cluster_reductions#Yod-dropping) generally occurs after /s/, /l/, /z/, /θ/ but not after /t/, /d/ and /n/.[15] Accordingly, *suit* is pronounced as /sʉːt/, *lute* as /lʉːt/, *Zeus* as /zʉːs/ and *enthusiasm* as /enˈθʉːziːæzəm/. Other cases of /sj/ and /zj/, as well as /tj/ and /dj/, have [coalesced](/source/English_consonant-cluster_reductions#Yod-coalescence) to /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ respectively for many speakers. /j/ is generally retained in other [consonant clusters](/source/Consonant_cluster).[citation needed]

In common with most varieties of [Scottish English](/source/Scottish_English) and [American English](/source/American_English), the phoneme /l/ is pronounced by Australians as a "dark" (velarised) *l* ([ɫ]) in almost all positions, unlike other dialects such as [Received Pronunciation](/source/Received_Pronunciation), [Hiberno (Irish) English](/source/Hiberno-English), etc.

### Pronunciation

Differences in stress, weak forms and standard pronunciation of isolated words occur between Australian English and other forms of English, which while noticeable do not impair intelligibility.

The affixes *-ary*, *-ery*, *-ory*, *-bury*, *-berry* and *-mony* (seen in words such as *necessary, mulberry* and *matrimony*) can be pronounced either with a full vowel (/ˈnesəseɹiː, ˈmalbeɹiː, ˈmætɹəməʉniː/) or a schwa (/ˈnesəsəɹiː, ˈmalbəɹiː, ˈmætɹəməniː/). Although some words like *necessary* are almost universally pronounced with the full vowel, older generations of Australians are relatively likely to pronounce these affixes with a schwa as is typical in British English. Meanwhile, younger generations are relatively likely to use a full vowel.

Words ending in unstressed *-ile* derived from Latin adjectives ending in *-ilis* are pronounced with a full vowel, so that *fertile* /ˈfɜːtɑel/ sounds like *fur tile* rather than rhyming with *turtle* /ˈtɜːtəl/.

In addition, miscellaneous pronunciation differences exist when compared with other varieties of English in relation to various isolated words, with some of those pronunciations being unique to Australian English. For example:

- As with American English, the vowel in *yoghurt* /ˈjəʉɡət/ and the prefix *homo-* /ˈhəʉməʉ/ (as in *homosexual* or *homophobic*) are pronounced with GOAT rather than LOT;
- *Vitamin*, *migraine* and *privacy* are all pronounced with /ɑe/ in the stressed syllable (/ˈvɑetəmən, ˈmɑeɡɹæɪn, ˈpɹɑevəsiː/) rather than /ˈvɪtəmən, ˈmiːɡɹæɪn, ˈpɹɪvəsiː/;
- *Dynasty* and *patronise*, by contrast, are usually subject to [trisyllabic laxing](/source/Trisyllabic_laxing) (/ˈdɪnəstiː, ˈpætɹɔnɑez/) like in Britain, alongside US-derived /ˈdɑenəstiː, ˈpæɪtɹɔnɑez/;
- The prefix *paedo-* (as in *paedophile*) is pronounced /ˈpedəʉ/ rather than /ˈpiːdəʉ/;
- In loanwords, the vowel spelled with is often nativized as the PALM vowel (/ɐː/), similar to American English (/ɑː/), rather than the TRAP vowel (/æ/), as in British English. For example, *pasta* is pronounced /ˈpɐːstə/, analogous to American English /ˈpɑstə/, rather than /ˈpæstə/, as in British English.
- *Urinal* is stressed on the first syllable and with the [schwa](/source/Schwa) for *I*: /ˈjʉːɹənəl/;
- *Harass* and *harassment* are pronounced with the stress on the second, rather than the first syllable;
- The suffix *-sia* (as in *[Malaysia](/source/Malaysia)*, *[Indonesia](/source/Indonesia)* and *[Polynesia](/source/Polynesia)*, but not *[Tunisia](/source/Tunisia)*) is pronounced /-⁠ʒə/ rather than /-ziːə/;
- The word *foyer* is pronounced /ˈfoɪə/, rather than /ˈfoɪæɪ/;
- *Tomato*, *vase* and *data* are pronounced with /ɐː/ instead of /æɪ/: /təˈmɐːtəʉ, vɐːz, ˈdɐːtə/, with /ˈdæɪtə/ being uncommon but acceptable;
- *Zebra* and *leisure* are pronounced /ˈzebɹə/ and /ˈleʒə/ rather than /ˈziːbɹə/ and /ˈliːʒə/, both having disyllabic laxing;
- *Status* varies between British-derived /ˈstæɪtəs/ with the FACE vowel and American-derived /ˈstætəs/ with the TRAP vowel;
- Conversely, *precedence*, *precedent* and derivatives are mainly pronounced with the FLEECE vowel in the stressed syllable, rather than DRESS: /ˈpɹiːsədəns ~ pɹiːˈsiːdəns, ˈpɹiːsədənt/;
- *Basil* is pronounced /ˈbæzəl/, rather than /ˈbæɪzəl/;
- Conversely, *cache* is usually pronounced /kæɪʃ/, rather than the more conventional /kæʃ/;
- *Buoy* is pronounced as /boɪ/ (as in *boy*) rather than /ˈbʉːiː/;
- The *E* in *congress* and *progress* is not reduced: /ˈkɔnɡɹes, ˈpɹəʉɡɹes/;
- Conversely, the unstressed *O* in *silicon*, *phenomenon* and *python* stands for a schwa: /ˈsɪlɪkən, fəˈnɔmənən, ˈpɑeθən/;
- In *Amazon*, *Lebanon*, *marathon* and *pantheon*, however, the unstressed *O* stands for the LOT vowel, somewhat as with American English: /ˈæməzɔn, ˈlebənɔn, ˈmæɹəθɔn, ˈpænθæɪɔn/;
- The colour name *maroon* is pronounced with the GOAT vowel: /məˈɹəʉn/.

## Variation

Variation in Australian closing diphthongs[16] updated to match the HCE system[17] Phoneme Lexical set Phonetic realization Cultivated General Broad /iː/ FLEECE [ɪi] [ɪ̈i] [əːɪ] /ʉː/ GOOSE [ʊu] [ɪ̈ɯ, ʊʉ] [əːʉ] /æɪ/ FACE [ɛɪ] [æ̠ɪ] [æ̠ːɪ, a̠ːɪ] /əʉ/ GOAT [ö̞ʊ] [æ̠ʉ] [æ̠ːʉ, a̠ːʉ] /ɑe/ PRICE [a̠e] [ɒe] [ɒːe] /æɔ/ MOUTH [a̠ʊ] [æo] [ɛːo, ɛ̃ːɤ]

Main article: [Variation in Australian English](/source/Variation_in_Australian_English)

Relative to many other national dialect groupings, Australian English is relatively homogeneous across the country. Some relatively minor regional differences in pronunciation exist. A limited range of [word choices](/source/Word_usage) is strongly regional in nature. Consequently, the geographical background of individuals may be inferred if they use words that are peculiar to particular Australian states or territories and, in some cases, even smaller regions. In addition, some Australians speak [creole languages](/source/English-based_creole_languages) derived from Australian English, such as [Australian Kriol](/source/Australian_Kriol_language), [Torres Strait Creole](/source/Torres_Strait_Creole) and [Norfuk](/source/Norfuk_language).

Academic research has also identified notable [sociocultural](/source/Culture) variation within Australian English, which is mostly evident in phonology.[18]

### Regional variation

Although Australian English is relatively homogeneous, there are some regional variations. The dialects of English spoken in the various [states and territories of Australia](/source/States_and_territories_of_Australia) differ slightly in vocabulary and phonology.

Most regional differences are in word usage. Swimming clothes are known as *cossies*, /ˈkɔziːz/ *togs* or *swimmers* in New South Wales, *togs* in Queensland, and *bathers* in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.[19] What Queensland calls a *stroller* is usually called a *pram* in Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania.[20]

Preference for some synonymous words also differ between states. *Garbage* (i.e., garbage bin, garbage truck) dominates over *rubbish* in New South Wales and Queensland, while *rubbish* is more popular in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.[20]

Additionally, the word *footy* generally refers to the most popular [football code](/source/Football_in_Australia) in an area; that is, [rugby league](/source/Rugby_league) or [rugby union](/source/Rugby_union) depending on the local area, in most of New South Wales and Queensland. More commonly *rugby* is used to distinguish rugby union from *footy* which refers to the more popular rugby league. *Footy* commonly is used for [Australian rules football](/source/Australian_rules_football) elsewhere however the term refers to the both prominent codes, rugby league and Australian rules football, interchangeably, depending on context of usage outside of regional perrameters. In some pockets of Melbourne & Western Sydney *football* and more rarely *footy* will refer to [association football](/source/Association_football) although unlike more common international terminology, Australian English uses the term *soccer* and not *football* or *footy*. Beer glasses are also [named differently](/source/Australian_English_vocabulary#Alcohol) in different states. Distinctive grammatical patterns exist such as the use of the interrogative *eh* (also spelled *ay* or *aye*), which is particularly associated with Queensland. *[Secret Santa](/source/Secret_Santa)* ([citation needed]) and *Kris Kringle* are used in all states, with the former being more common in Queensland.

**South Australia**

The most pronounced variation in phonology is between [South Australia](/source/South_Australia) and the other states and territories. The [trap–bath split](/source/Trap%E2%80%93bath_split) is more complete in South Australia, in contrast to the other states. Accordingly, words such as *dance*, *advance*, *plant*, *example* and *answer* are pronounced with /ɐː/ (as in *father*) far more frequently in South Australia while the older /æ/ (as in *mad*) is dominant elsewhere in Australia.[20] [*L*-vocalisation](/source/L-vocalization) is also more common in South Australia than other states.

**Centring diphthongs**

In Western Australian and Queensland English, the vowels in *near* and *square* are typically realised as centring diphthongs ([nɪə, skweə]), whereas in the other states they may also be realised as monophthongs: [nɪː, skweː].[21]

**Salary–celery merger**

A feature common in Victorian English is [salary–celery merger](/source/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_l#Salary–celery_merger), whereby a Victorian pronunciation of *Ellen* may sound like *Alan* and Victoria's capital city *[Melbourne](/source/Melbourne)* may sound like *Malbourne* to speakers from other states. There is also regional variation in /ʉː/ before /l/ (as in *school* and *pool*).

**Full-fool allophones**

In some parts of Australia, notably Victoria, a fully backed allophone of /ʉː/, transcribed [ʊː], is common before /l/. As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers. The usual allophone for /ʉː/ is further forward in Queensland and New South Wales than Victoria.

**Final particle but**

A *final particle but*, where "but" is the concluding word in a sentence, has also evolved as a distinctive feature in Australian English, particularly in Western Australia and Queensland. In conversational Australian English it is thought to be a turn-yielding particle that marks contrastive content in the utterance it closes. It is a linguistic trait sometimes employed in Australian literature to indicate that the character is quintessentially Australian.[22]

### Sociocultural variation

The General Australian accent serves as the [standard variety](/source/Standard_language) of English across the country. According to linguists, it emerged during the 19th century.[23] General Australian is the dominant variety across the continent, and is particularly so in urban areas.[24] The increasing dominance of General Australian reflects its prominence on radio and television since the latter half of the 20th century.

Recent generations have seen a comparatively smaller proportion of the population speaking with the *Broad* sociocultural variant, which differs from General Australian in its phonology. The Broad variant is found across the continent and is relatively more prominent in rural and outer-suburban areas.[25][26]

A largely historical *[Cultivated](/source/Cultivated_Australian_English)* sociocultural variant, which adopted features of British [Received Pronunciation](/source/Received_Pronunciation) and which was commonplace in official media during the early 20th century, had become largely extinct by the onset of the 21st century.[27]

[Australian Aboriginal English](/source/Australian_Aboriginal_English) is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.

Academics have noted the emergence of numerous ethnocultural dialects of Australian English that are spoken by people from some [minority](/source/Minority_group) non-English speaking backgrounds.[28] These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as [Afro-Asiatic](/source/Afro-Asiatic) languages and [languages of Asia](/source/Asian_languages). [Samoan English](/source/Samoa#Language) is also influencing Australian English.[29] Other [ethnolects](/source/Ethnolects) include those of Lebanese and Vietnamese Australians.[30]

A [high rising terminal](/source/High_rising_terminal) in Australian English was noted and studied earlier than in other varieties of English.[31] The feature is sometimes called *Australian questioning intonation*. Research published in 1986, regarding vernacular speech in [Sydney](/source/Sydney), suggested that high rising terminal was initially spread by young people in the 1960s. It found that the high rising terminal was used more than twice as often by young people than older people, and is more common among women than men.[32] In the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom), it has occasionally been considered one of the variety's stereotypical features, and its spread there is attributed to the popularity of [Australian soap operas](/source/Soap_opera#Australia).[33]

## Vocabulary

### Intrinsic traits

Main article: [Australian English vocabulary](/source/Australian_English_vocabulary)

Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect.

#### Commonly known

Internationally well-known examples of Australian terminology include *[outback](/source/Outback)*, meaning a remote, sparsely populated area, *[the bush](/source/The_bush)*, meaning either a native forest or a country area in general, and *g'day*, a greeting. *Dinkum*, or *fair dinkum* means "true", "legitimate" or "is that true?", among other things, depending on context and inflection.[34] The derivative *dinky-di* means "true" or devoted: a "dinky-di Aussie" is a "true Australian".[citation needed]

#### Historical references

[Australian poetry](/source/Australian_performance_poetry), such as "[The Man from Snowy River](/source/The_Man_from_Snowy_River_(poem))", as well as [folk songs](/source/Australian_folk_music) such as "[Waltzing Matilda](/source/Waltzing_Matilda)", contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today.[citation needed]

#### British English similarities and differences

Australian English, in common with [British English](/source/British_English), uses the word *[mate](/source/Mateship)* to mean *[friend](/source/Mate_(colloquialism))*, as well as the word *[bloody](/source/Bloody)* as a mild [expletive](/source/Expletive_(linguistics)) or [intensifier](/source/Intensifier).[35][36] "Mate" is also used in multiple ways including to indicate "mateship" or formally call out the target of a threat or insult, depending on intonation and context.

Several words used by Australians were at one time used in the UK but have since fallen out of usage or changed in meaning there. For example, *creek* in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the UK it is typically a watercourse in a marshy area; *paddock* in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; *bush* or *scrub* in Australia, as in North America, means a natural, uncultivated area of vegetation or flora, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names (such as [Shepherd's Bush](/source/Shepherd's_Bush) and [Wormwood Scrubs](/source/Wormwood_Scrubs)).[citation needed]

#### Aboriginal-derived words

Further information: [List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin](/source/List_of_English_words_of_Australian_Aboriginal_origin)

Some elements of [Aboriginal languages](/source/Australian_Aboriginal_languages) have been [adopted by Australian English](/source/List_of_English_words_of_Australian_Aboriginal_origin)—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example [dingo](/source/Dingo)) and local culture. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as *kangaroo*, *boomerang*, *budgerigar*, *wallaby* and so on have become international. Other examples are *[cooee](/source/Cooee)* and *hard yakka*. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, (pronounced /ˈkʉːiː/) which travels long distances. *Cooee* is also a notional distance: "if he's within *cooee*, we'll spot him". *Hard yakka* means "hard work" and is derived from *yakka*, from the [Jagera](/source/Turrubal_language)/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region.

The word *bung*, meaning "dead" was originally a [Yagara](/source/Turrbal_language) word which was used in the [pidgin](/source/Pidgin) widely spoken across Australia.[37]

#### Places

Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also been influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, [Canberra](/source/Canberra), named after a local [Ngunnawal language](/source/Ngunnawal_language) word thought to mean "women's breasts" or "meeting place".[38][39]

#### Figures of speech and abbreviations

[Litotes](/source/Litotes), such as "not bad", "not much" and "you're not wrong", are also used.[citation needed]

[Diminutives](/source/Diminutive) and [hypocorisms](/source/Hypocorism) are common and are often used to indicate familiarity.[40] Some common examples are *arvo* (afternoon), *barbie* (barbecue), *[smoko](/source/Smoko)* (cigarette break), *[Aussie](/source/Aussie)* (Australian) and *Straya* (Australia). This may also be done with people's names to create nicknames (other English speaking countries create [similar diminutives](/source/English_diminutive)). For example, "Gazza" from Gary, or "Smitty" from John Smith. The use of the suffix *-o* originates in Irish: *ó*,[citation needed] which is both a postclitic and a suffix with much the same meaning as in Australian English.[citation needed]

In informal speech, incomplete comparisons are sometimes used, such as "sweet as" (as in "That car is sweet as."). "Full", "fully" or "heaps" may precede a word to act as an intensifier (as in "The waves at the beach were heaps good."). This was more common in regional Australia and South Australia[when?] but has been in common usage in urban Australia for decades. The suffix "-ly" is sometimes omitted in broader Australian English. For instance, "really good" can become "real good".[citation needed]

#### Measures

Australia's switch to the [metric system](/source/Metric_system) in the 1970s changed most of the country's vocabulary of measurement from [imperial](/source/Imperial_units) to metric measures.[41] Since the switch to metric, heights of people are listed in centimetres on official documents and distances by road on signs are listed in terms of [kilometres](/source/Kilometre) and [metres](/source/Metre).[42]

### Comparison with other varieties

Where [British and American English vocabulary differs](/source/American_and_British_English_differences), sometimes Australian English shares a usage with one of those varieties, as with *petrol* (AmE: *gasoline*) and *mobile phone* (AmE: *cellular phone*) which are shared with British English, or *truck* (BrE: *lorry* - *truck* has a slightly different meaning) and *[eggplant](/source/Eggplant)* (BrE: *aubergine*) which are shared with American English.

In other circumstances, Australian English sometimes favours a usage which is different from both British and American English as with:[43]

- *[(the) bush](/source/The_bush)* (AmE and BrE: *(the) woods*)
- *bushfire* (Ame and BrE: *[wildfire](/source/Wildfire)*)
- *capsicum* (AmE: *[bell pepper](/source/Bell_pepper)*; BrE *(green/red) pepper*)
- *[Esky](/source/Esky)* (AmE and BrE: *cooler* or *ice box*)
- *doona* (AmE: *[comforter](/source/Comforter)*; BrE *duvet*)
- *footpath* (AmE: *[sidewalk](/source/Sidewalk)*; BrE: *pavement*)
- *ice block* or *icy pole* (AmE: *[popsicle](/source/Ice_pop)* BrE: *ice lolly*)
- *jerry lamps* [used in Tasmania] (AmE and BrE: *fog lights*)
- *[lollies](/source/Confectionery)* (AmE: *candy*; BrE: *sweets*)
- *overseas* (AmE and BrE: *abroad*)
- *peak hour* (Ame and BrE: *[rush hour](/source/Rush_hour)*)
- *[powerpoint](/source/AC_power_plugs_and_sockets)* (AmE: electrical *outlet*; BrE: electrical *socket*)
- *thongs* (AmE and BrE: *[flip-flops](/source/Flip-flops)*)
- *[ute](/source/Ute_(vehicle))* /jʉːt/ (AmE and BrE: *pickup truck*)

Some examples of terminology associated with food, transport and clothing is used below to demonstrate the variations which exist between Australian English and other varieties:

Australian American British Notes Food capsicum bell pepper (red/green) pepper (potato) chips French fries (potato) chips chook/chicken burger chicken (sandwich) coriander cilantro coriander entree appetizer AmE entree refers to AusE main course eggplant aubergine shared with AmE fairy floss cotton candy candy floss ice block/icy pole popsicle ice lolly jelly Jell-o jelly AmE jelly refers to AusE jam lollies candy sweets marinara (sauce) refers to tomato based sauce in AmE, BrE, seafood sauce in AusE mince/minced meat ground meat mince/minced meat prawn prawn (large) shrimp (small) BrE refers to large crustaceans only, small crustaceans referred to as shrimp. shared with AmE snow pea mangetout shared with AmE pumpkin squash (excl. large variety) marrow AusE squash refers only to a small number of uncommon species tomato sauce ketchup tomato sauce shared with BrE zucchini courgette shared with AmE Transport aeroplane airplane aeroplane shared with BrE bonnet hood bonnet bumper fender bumper carpark parking lot carpark convertible cabriolet shared with AmE footpath sidewalk pavement horse float horse trailer horsebox indicator turn signal indicator shared with BrE peak hour rush hour petrol gasoline petrol shared with BrE railway railroad railway sedan (car) saloon (car) shared with AmE semitrailer artic/articulated lorry station wagon estate car truck lorry ute pickup truck windscreen windshield windscreen shared with BrE Clothing gumboots galoshes/rubber boots Wellies/Wellington boots jumper sweater jumper shared with BrE nappy diaper nappy overalls dungarees shared with AmE raincoat mac/mackintosh [44] runners/sneakers sneakers trainers sneakers shared with AmE sandshoe tennis shoe pump/plimsoll singlet tank top vest skivvy turtleneck polo neck swimmers/togs/bathers bathing suit/swimsuit swimming costume [45] thongs flip-flops (footwear) thongs refer to g-string (underwear) in BrE and AmE.

#### Terms with different meanings in Australian English

There also exist words which in Australian English are ascribed different meanings from those ascribed in other varieties of English, for instance:[43]

- *Asian* in Australian (and American) English commonly refers to people of East Asian ancestry, while in British English it commonly refers to people of South Asian ancestry
- *Biscuit* in Australian (and British) English refers to AmE *cookie* and *cracker*, while in American English it refers to a [leavened bread product](/source/Biscuit_(bread))
- *(potato) Chips* refers both to British English *crisps* (which is not commonly used in Australian English) and to American English *French fries* (which is used alongside *hot chips*)
- *Football* in Australian English most commonly refers to [Australian rules football](/source/Australian_rules_football), [rugby league](/source/Rugby_league) or [rugby union](/source/Rugby_union). In British English, *football* is most commonly used to refer to *association football*, while in North American English *football* is used to refer to *[gridiron](/source/Gridiron_football)*
- *Pants* in Australian (and American) English most commonly refers to British English *trousers*, but in British English refers to Australian English *underpants*
- *Nursery* in Australian English generally refers to a [plant nursery](/source/Plant_nursery), whereas in British English and American English it also often refers to a [child care](/source/Child_care) or daycare for pre-school age children[46]
- *Paddock* in Australian English refers to an open field or meadow whereas in American and British English it refers to a small agricultural enclosure
- *Premier* in Australian English refers specifically to the [head of government of an Australian state](/source/Premiers_and_chief_ministers_of_the_Australian_states_and_territories), whereas in British English it is used interchangeably with *[Prime Minister](/source/Prime_Minister)*
- *Public school* in Australian (and American) English refers to a state school. Australian and American English use *private school* to mean a non-government or independent school, while British English uses *private school* for the same concept, *public schools* are a subset of private schools
- *Pudding* in Australian (and American) English refers to [a particular sweet dessert dish](/source/Pudding), while in British English can also refer to dessert (the [food course](/source/Course_(food))) in general
- *Thongs* in Australian English refer to British and American English *flip-flop* (footwear), whereas in both American and British English it refers to Australian English *[G-string](/source/G-string)* (underwear) (in Australian English the singular "thong" can refer to one half of a pair of the footwear or to a G-string, so care must be taken as to context)
- *Vest* in Australian (and American) English refers to a padded upper garment or British English *waistcoat* but in British English *vest* refers to Australian English *singlet* - an obsolete term in British English

#### Idioms taking different forms in Australian English

In addition to the large number of uniquely Australian idioms in common use, there are instances of idioms taking different forms in Australian English than in other varieties, for instance:

- *A drop in the ocean* (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE *a drop in the bucket*
- *A way to go* (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE *a ways to go*
- *Home away from home* (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE *home from home*
- *Take (something) with a grain of salt* (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE *take with a pinch of salt*
- *Touch wood* (shared with BrE usage) as opposed to AmE *knock on wood*
- *Wouldn't touch (something) with a ten-foot pole* (shared with AmE usage) as opposed to BrE *wouldn't touch with a barge pole*

#### British and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English

There are extensive terms used in other varieties of English which are not widely used in Australian English. These terms usually do not result in Australian English speakers failing to comprehend speakers of other varieties of English, as Australian English speakers will often be familiar with such terms through exposure to media or may ascertain the meaning using context.

Non-exhaustive selections of British English and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English together with their definitions or Australian English equivalents are found in the collapsible table below:[47][48]

British English terms not widely used in Australian English[47]

- **Allotment** (gardening): A [community garden](/source/Allotment_(gardening)) not connected to a dwelling
- **Artic** or **articulated lorry** (vehicle): Australian English *[semi-trailer](/source/Semi-trailer)*
- **Aubergine** (vegetable): Australian English *[eggplant](/source/Eggplant)*
- **Bank holiday**: Australian English *public holiday*
- **Barmy**: Crazy, mad or insane.
- **Bedsit**: Australian English *studio (apartment)*
- **[Belisha beacon](/source/Belisha_beacon)**: A flashing light atop a pole used to mark a pedestrian crossing
- **Bin lorry**: Australian English: *[rubbish truck](/source/Rubbish_truck) or garbage truck*
- **Bobby**: A police officer, particularly one of lower rank
- **Cagoule**: A lightweight [raincoat](/source/Raincoat) or windsheeter
- **Candy floss** (confectionery): Australian English *[fairy floss](/source/Cotton_candy)*
- **Cash machine**: Australian English *automatic teller machine*
- **Chav**: Lower socio-economic person comparable to Australian English *bogan*
- **Child-minder**: Australian English *[babysitter](/source/Babysitter)*
- **Chivvy**: To hurry (somebody) along. Australian English *nag*
- **Chrimbo**: Abbreviation for *Christmas* comparable to Australian English *Chrissy*
- **Chuffed**: To be proud (especially of oneself)
- **Cleg** (insect): Australian English *horsefly*
- **Clingfilm**: A plastic wrap used in food preparation. Australian English *Glad wrap/[cling wrap](/source/Plastic_wrap)*
- **Community payback**: Australian English *[community service](/source/Community_service)*
- **Comprehensive school**: Australian English *state school* or *public school*
- **Cooker**: A kitchen appliance. Australian English *[stove](/source/Stove)* and/or *oven*
- **Coppice**: An area of cleared woodland
- **Council housing**: Australian English *public housing*
- **Counterpane**: A bed covering. Australian English *bedspread* (*bedspread* is also used in the UK)
- **Courgette**: A vegetable. Australian English *[zucchini](/source/Zucchini)*
- **Creche**: Australian English *[child care](/source/Child_care) centre*
- **(potato) Crisps**: Australian English *[(potato) chips](/source/Potato_chips)*
- **Current account**: Australian English *transaction account*
- **Dell**: A small secluded hollow or valley
- **Do** (informal): Australian English *party* or social gathering
- **Doddle** (slang): An easy task
- **Doss** (verb): To spend time idly
- **Drawing pin**: Australian English *thumb tack*
- **Dungarees**: Australian English *[overalls](/source/Overalls)*
- **Dustbin**: Australian English *[garbage bin](/source/Waste_container)/rubbish bin*
- **Dustcart** or **bin lorry**: Australian English *[garbage truck](/source/Garbage_truck)/rubbish truck*
- **Duvet**: Australian English *[doona](/source/Duvet)*
- **Elastoplast** or **plaster**: An adhesive used to cover small wounds. Australian English *[band-aid](/source/Adhesive_bandage)*
- **Electrical lead**: Australian English *electrical cord*
- **Estate car**: Australian English *[station wagon](/source/Station_wagon)*
- **Fairy cake**: Australian English *[cupcake](/source/Cupcake)*
- **Father Christmas**: Australian English *[Santa Claus](/source/Santa_Claus)*
- **Fen**: A low and frequently flooded area of land, similar to Australian English *swamp*
- **Free phone**: Australian English *[toll-free](/source/Toll-free_telephone_number)*
- **Gammon**: Meat from the hind leg of [pork](/source/Pork). Australian English makes no distinction between *gammon* and *ham*
- **Git**: A foolish person. Equivalent to *idiot* or *moron*
- **Goose pimples**: Australian English *[goose bumps](/source/Goose_pimples)*
- **Hacked off**: To be irritated or upset, often with a person
- **Hairgrip**: Australian English *hairpin* or *bobbypin*
- **Half-term**: Australian English *[school holiday](/source/School_holiday)*
- **Haulier**: Australian English *[hauler](/source/Hauler)*
- **Heath**: An area of dry grass or shrubs, similar to Australian English *shrubland*
- **Hoover** (verb): Australian English *to [vacuum](/source/Vacuum_cleaner)*
- **Horsebox**: Australian English *[horse float](/source/Horse_trailer)*
- **Ice lolly**: Australian English *[ice block](/source/Ice_block)* or *icy pole*
- **Kip**: To *sleep*
- **Kitchen roll**: Australian English *[paper towel](/source/Paper_towel)*
- **Landslip**: Australian English *landslide*
- **Lavatory**: Australian English *toilet* (*lavatory* is used in Australian English for toilets on aeroplanes)
- **Lido**: A public swimming pool
- **Lorry**: Australian English *truck*
- **Loudhailer**: Australian English *megaphone*
- **Mackintosh** or **mac**: Australian English *[raincoat](/source/Raincoat)*
- **Mangetout**: Australian English *[snow pea](/source/Snow_pea)*
- **Marrow**: Australian English *[squash](/source/Cucurbita)*
- **Minidish**: A [satellite dish](/source/Satellite_dish) for domestic (especially television) use
- **Moggie**: A [domestic short-haired cat](/source/Domestic_short-haired_cat)
- **Nettled**: Irritated (especially with somebody)
- **Nosh**: A meal or spread of food
- **Off-licence**: Australian English *[bottle shop](/source/Liquor_store)/Bottle-o*
- **Pak choi**: Australian English *[bok choy](/source/Bok_choy)*
- **Pavement**: Australian English *[footpath](/source/Footpath)*
- **Pelican crossing**: Australian English *pedestrian crossing* or *zebra crossing*
- **Peaky**: Unwell or sickly
- **(red or green) Pepper** (vegetable): Australian English *[capsicum](/source/Capsicum)*
- **People carrier** (vehicle): Australian English *[people mover](/source/Minivan)*
- **Pillar box**: Australian English *[post box](/source/Post_box)*
- **Pillock**: A mildly offensive term for a foolish or obnoxious person, similar to *idiot* or *moron*. Also refers to male genitalia
- **Plimsoll** (footwear): Australian English *[sandshoe](/source/Plimsoll_shoe)*
- **Pneumatic drill**: Australian English *[jackhammer](/source/Jackhammer)*
- **Polo neck** (garment): Australian English *[skivvy](/source/Polo_neck)*
- **Poorly**: Unwell or sick
- **Press-up** (exercise): Australian English *[push-up](/source/Push-up)*
- **Pushchair**: A wheeled cart for pushing a baby. Australian English *[stroller](/source/Stroller)* or *pram*
- **Pusher**: A wheeled cart for pushing a baby. Australian English *stroller* or *pram*
- **Rodgering**: A mildly offensive term for sexual intercourse, similar to Australian English *rooting*
- **Saloon** (car): Australian English *sedan*
- **Scratchings** (food): Solid material left after rendering animal (especially pork) fat. Australian English *[crackling](/source/Cracklings)*
- **Sellotape** genericized trademark: Australian English *sticky tape*
- **Shan't**: Australian English *will not*
- **Skive** (verb): To play truant, particularly from an educational institution. Australian English to *[wag](/source/Truancy)*
- **Sleeping policeman**: Australian English *speed hump* or *speed bump* (though both these terms are also widely used in the UK)
- **Snog** (verb) (dated): To kiss passionately, equivalent to Australian English *pash*
- **Sod**: A mildly offensive term for an unpleasant person
- **Spinney**: A small area of trees and bushes
- **Strimmer**: Australian English *whipper snipper* or *[line trimmer](/source/String_trimmer)*
- **Swan** (verb): To move from one plact to another ostentatiously
- **Sweets**: Australian English *[lollies](/source/Candy)*
- **Tailback**: A long queue of stationary or slow-moving traffic
- **Tangerine**: Australian English *[mandarin](/source/Mandarin_orange)*[citation needed] (but see [tangerine](/source/Tangerine) for the various definitions of this fruit)
- **Tat** (noun): Cheap, tasteless goods
- **Tipp-Ex** (genericized trademark): Australian English *white out* or *liquid paper*
- **Trainers**: Athletic footwear. Australian English *runners* or *sneakers*
- **Turning** (noun): Where one road branches from another. Australian English *turn*
- **Utility room**: A room containing washing or other home appliances, similar to Australian English *[laundry](/source/Laundry_room)*
- **Value-added tax (VAT)**: Australian English equivalent *[goods and services tax (GST)](/source/Sales_tax)*
- **Wellington boots**: Australian English *[gumboots](/source/Wellington_boot)* although *gumboots* is a dated UK English word for the same thing
- **White spirit** ([turpentine](/source/Turpentine) substitute): Australian English *[turpentine](/source/White_spirit)*[citation needed]

American English terms not widely used in Australian English[48]

- **Acclimate**: Australian English *acclimatise*
- **Airplane**: Australian English *aeroplane*
- **Aluminum**: Australian English *aluminium*
- **Baby carriage**: Australian English *stroller* or *pram*
- **Bangs**: A hairstyle. Australian English *fringe*
- **Baseboard** (architecture): Australian English *skirting board*
- **Bayou**: Australian English *swamp*/*billabong*
- **Bell pepper**: Australian English *[capsicum](/source/Capsicum)*
- **Bellhop**: Australian English *hotel porter*
- **Beltway**: Australian English *[ring road](/source/Beltway)*
- **Boondocks**: An isolated, rural area. Australian English *the sticks* or *Woop Woop* or *Beyond the black stump*
- **Broil** (cooking technique): Australian English *[grill](/source/Grilling)*
- **Bullhorn**: Australian English *megaphone*
- **Burglarize**: Australian English *burgle*
- **Busboy**: A subclass of (restaurant) waiter
- **Candy**: Australian English *[lollies](/source/Candy)*
- **Cellular phone**: Australian English *mobile phone*
- **Cilantro**: Australian English *[coriander](/source/Coriander)*
- **Comforter**: Australian English *[doona](/source/Duvet)*
- **Condominium**: Australian English *apartment*
- **Counter-clockwise**: Australian English *anticlockwise*
- **Coveralls**: Australian English *[overalls](/source/Overall)*
- **Crapshoot**: A risky venture
- **Diaper**: Australian English *nappy*
- **Downtown**: Australian English *central business district*
- **Drapes**: Australian English *curtains*
- **Drugstore**: Australian English *[pharmacy](/source/Pharmacy)* or *chemist*
- **Drywall**: Australian English *plasterboard*
- **Dumpster**: Australian English *[skip bin](/source/Dumpster)*
- **Fall** (season): Australian English *autumn*
- **Fanny pack**: Australian English *[bum bag](/source/Fanny_pack)*
- **Faucet**: Australian English *tap*
- **Flashlight**: Australian English *[torch](/source/Flashlight)*
- **[Freshman](/source/Freshman)**: A first year student at a highschool or university
- **Frosting** (cookery): Australian English *icing*
- **Gasoline**: Australian English *petrol*
- **Gas pedal**: Australian English *[accelerator](/source/Car_controls#Throttle_control)*
- **Gas Station**: Australian English *service station* or *petrol station*
- **Glove compartment**: Australian English *[glovebox](/source/Glove_compartment)*
- **Golden raisin**: Australian English *[sultana](/source/Sultana_(grape))*
- **Grifter**: Australian English *[con artist](/source/Con_artist)*
- **Ground beef**: Australian English *[minced beef](/source/Minced_beef)* or *mince*
- **Hood** (vehicle): Australian English *bonnet*
- **Hot tub**: Australian English *[spa](/source/Hot_tub)* or *spa bath*
- **Jell-o**: Australian English *jelly*
- **Ladybug**: Australian English *ladybird*
- **Mail-man**: Australian English *postman* or *postie*
- **Mass transit**: Australian English *public transport*
- **Math**: Australian English *maths*
- **Mineral spirits**: Australian English *[turpentine](/source/White_spirit)*
- **Nightstand**: Australian English *bedside table*
- **Out-of-state**: Australian English *interstate*
- **Pacifier**: Australian English *dummy*
- **Parking lot**: Australian English *[car park](/source/Parking_lot)*
- **Penitentiary**: Australian English *prison* or *jail*
- **Period** (punctuation): Australian English *full stop*
- **Play hooky** (verb): To play truant from an educational institution. Equivalent to Australian English (to) *wag*
- **Popsicle**: Australian English *[ice block](/source/Ice_block)* or *icy pole*
- **Railroad**: Australian English *railway*
- **Railroad ties**: Australian English *Railway sleepers*
- **Rappel**: Australian English *[abseil](/source/Abseil)*
- **Realtor**: Australian English *[real estate agent](/source/Estate_agent)*
- **Root** (sport): To enthusiastically support a sporting team. Equivalent to Australian English *barrack*
- **Row house**: Australian English *[terrace house](/source/Terraced_house)*
- **Sales tax**: Australian English *[goods and services tax (GST)](/source/Sales_tax)*
- **Saran wrap**: Australian English *[plastic wrap](/source/Glad_wrap)* or *cling wrap*
- **Scad**: Australian English *a large quantity*
- **Scallion**: Australian English *spring onion*
- **Sharpie** (pen): Australian English *permanent marker* or *texta* or *felt pen*
- **Shopping cart**: Australian English *shopping trolley*
- **Sidewalk**: Australian English *footpath*
- **Silverware** or **flatware**: Australian English *[cutlery](/source/Cutlery)*
- **Soda pop**: Australian English *soft drink*
- **Streetcar**: Australian English *tram*
- **Sweater**: Australian English *jumper*
- **Sweatpants**: Australian English *[tracksuit pants](/source/Sweatpants)/trackies*
- **Tailpipe**: Australian English *[exhaust pipe](/source/Exhaust_pipe)*
- **Takeout**: Australian English *takeaway*
- **Trash can**: Australian English *[garbage bin](/source/Waste_container)* or *rubbish bin*
- **Trunk** (vehicle): Australian English *boot*
- **Turn signal**: Australian English *indicator*
- **Turtleneck**: Australian English *[skivvy](/source/Polo_neck)*
- **Upscale** and **downscale**: Australian English *upmarket* and *downmarket*
- **Vacation**: Australian English *holiday*
- **Windshield**: Australian English *[windscreen](/source/Windshield)*

### Influence on other languages and dialects

Australian English has influenced several other varieties of English, particularly in [Oceania](/source/Oceania), and other languages spoken in Australia and Oceania.

#### New Caledonia

Australian English has been a heavy source of vocabulary for both [English](/source/New_Caledonian_English) and [French](/source/New_Caledonian_French) (plus in turn local languages) in [New Caledonia](/source/New_Caledonia), with a large amount of Australianised [Anglicisms](/source/Anglicism) being present in New Caledonian speech. For example, the Australian agricultural terms *paddock*, *run*, *[station](/source/Station_(Australian_agriculture))*, *stock*, *[stockman](/source/Stockman_(Australia))*, *[stockwhip](/source/Stockwhip)* and *stockyard* are all used in New Caledonia.[49]

## Grammar

The general rules which apply to Australian English are described at [English grammar](/source/English_grammar). Grammatical differences between varieties of English are minor relative to differences in phonology and vocabulary and do not generally affect intelligibility. Examples of grammatical differences between Australian English and other varieties include:

- Collective nouns are generally singular in construction, i.e., *the group was leaving* as opposed to *the group were leaving*.[50] This is in common with [American English](/source/American_English).
- Australian English has an extreme distaste for the modal verbs *shall* (in non-legal contexts), *shan't* and *ought* (in place of *will*, *won't* and *should* respectively), which are encountered in British English.[51] However, *shall* is found in the [Australian Constitution](/source/Constitution_of_Australia), Acts of Parliament, and other formal or legal documents such as contracts, and *ought* sees use in some academic contexts (such as philosophy).
- Using *should* with the same meaning as *would*, e.g. *I should like to see you*, encountered in British English, is almost never encountered in Australian English.
- *River* follows the name of the river in question, i.e., the *[Brisbane River](/source/Brisbane_River)*, not the *River Brisbane*. However, there are exceptions: the official names of the Derwent and Torrens rivers (in Tasmania and South Australia, respectively) are [River Derwent](/source/River_Derwent_(Tasmania)) and [River Torrens](/source/River_Torrens). In [South Australian English](/source/South_Australian_English), the name of the [Murray River](/source/Murray_River) is also reversed.[52]
- While prepositions before days may be omitted in American English, i.e., *She resigned Thursday*, they are retained in Australian English: *She resigned on Thursday*. This is shared with British English.
- The institutional nouns *hospital* and *university* do not take the [definite article](/source/Definite_article), i.e., *She's in hospital*, and *He's at university*.[53] This is in contrast to American English where *the* is required, i.e., *In the hospital*, and *At the university*.
- *On the weekend* is used in favour of the British *at the weekend* which is not encountered in Australian English.[54]
- Ranges of dates use *to*, i.e., *Monday to Friday*, rather than *Monday through Friday*. This is shared with British English and is in contrast to American English. The hybrid form *Monday through to Friday* is sometimes used.
- When speaking or writing out numbers, *and* is always inserted before the tens, i.e., *one hundred and sixty-two* rather than *one hundred sixty-two*. This is in contrast to American English, where the insertion of *and* is acceptable but nonetheless either casual or informal.
- The preposition *to* in *write to* (e.g. "I'll write to you") is always retained, as opposed to American usage where it may be dropped.
- Australian English does not share the British usage of the verb *read* to mean "study at degree level". Therefore, it may be said that "He is studying medicine" but not that "He *is reading* medicine".
- When referring to time, Australians will refer to 10:30 as *half past ten* and do not use the (optional and informal) British *half ten*. Similarly, *a quarter to ten* is used for 9:45 rather than *(a) quarter of ten*, which is sometimes found in American English.
- To *have a shower* or *have a bath* are the most common usages in Australian English, in contrast to American English which uses *take a shower* and *take a bath*.[55]
- The past participle of *saw* (to cut with a saw) is *sawn* (e.g. *sawn-off shotgun*) in Australian English, in contrast to the American English *sawed*.
- The verb *visit* is transitive in Australian English.[example needed] Where the object is a person or people, American English also uses *visit with*, which is not found in Australian English.
- An outdoor event which is cancelled due to inclement weather is *rained out* in Australian English. This is in contrast to British English where it is said to be *rained off*.[56][57]
- In informal speech, sentence-final *but* may be used, e.g. "I don't want to go but" in place of "But I don't want to go".[51] This is also found in [Scottish English](/source/Scottish_English), and some northern English English dialects.
- In informal speech, the [discourse markers](/source/Discourse_marker) *yeah no* (or *yeah nah*) and *no yeah* (or *nah yeah*) may be used to mean "no" and "yes" respectively.[58] Extended discourse markers of this nature are sometimes used for comedic effect, but the meaning is generally found in the final affirmative/negative.

## Spelling and style

As in all English-speaking countries, there is no central authority that prescribes official usage with respect to matters of [spelling](/source/Orthography), grammar, punctuation or style.

### Spelling

There are several dictionaries of Australian English which adopt a [descriptive](/source/Linguistic_description) approach. The *[Macquarie Dictionary](/source/Macquarie_Dictionary)* and the *[Australian Oxford Dictionary](/source/Australian_Oxford_Dictionary)* are most commonly used by universities, governments and courts as the [standard](/source/Standardization_(linguistics)) for Australian English spelling.[59]

Australian spelling is significantly closer to [British compared with American spelling](/source/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences), as it did not adopt the systematic [reforms](/source/Spelling_reform) promulgated in [Noah Webster](/source/Noah_Webster)'s [1828 Dictionary](/source/Webster's_Dictionary). Notwithstanding, the Macquarie Dictionary often lists most American spellings as acceptable secondary variants.

The minor systematic differences which occur between Australian and American spelling are summarised below:[60]

- French-derived words which in American English end with **or**, such as *col**or***, *hon**or***, *behavi**or*** and *lab**or***, are spelt with **our** in Australian English: *col**our***, *hon**our***, *behavi**our*** and *lab**our***. Exceptions are the [Australian Labor Party](/source/Australian_Labor_Party) and some (especially [South Australian](/source/South_Australia)) placenames which use *harb**or***, notably [Victor Harbor](/source/Victor_Harbor,_South_Australia).
- Words which in American English end with **ize**, such as *real**ize***, *recogn**ize*** and *apolog**ize*** are spelt with **ise** in Australian English: *real**ise***, *recogn**ise*** and *apolog**ise***. The British [Oxford spelling](/source/Oxford_spelling), which uses the **ize** endings, remains a minority variant. The Macquarie Dictionary says that the *-ise* form as opposed to *-ize* sits at 3:1. The sole exception to this is *capsize*, which is used in all varieties.
- Words which in American English end with **yze**, such as *anal**yze***, *paral**yze*** and *catal**yze*** are spelt with **yse** in Australian English: *anal**yse***, *paral**yse*** and *catal**yse***.
- French-derived words which in American English end with **er**, such as *fib**er***, *cent**er*** and *met**er*** are spelt with **re** in Australian English: *fib**re***, *cent**re*** and *met**re*** (the unit of measurement only, not physical devices; so *gasomet**er***, *voltmet**er***).
- Words which end in American English end with **log**, such as *cata**log***, *dia**log*** and *mono**log*** are usually spelt with **logue** in Australian English: *cata**logue***, *dia**logue*** and *mono**logue***; however, the *Macquarie Dictionary* lists the **log** spelling as the preferred variant for *ana**log***.
- A double-consonant **l** is retained in Australian English when adding suffixes to words ending in *l* where the consonant is unstressed, contrary to American English. Therefore, Australian English favours *cance**ll**ed*, *counse**ll**or* and *trave**ll**ing* over American English *cance**l**ed*, *counse**l**or* and *trave**l**ing*.
- Where American English uses a double-consonant **ll** in the words *ski**ll**ful*, *wi**ll**ful*, *enro**ll***, *disti**ll***, *enthra**ll***, *fulfi**ll*** and *insta**ll**ment*, Australian English uses a single consonant: *ski**l**ful*, *wi**l**ful*, *enro**l***, *disti**l***, *enthra**l***, *fulfi**l*** and *insta**l**ment*. However, the Macquarie Dictionary has noted a growing tendency to use the double consonant.[61]
- The American English *defen**se*** and *offen**se*** are spelt *defen**ce*** and *offen**ce*** in Australian English.
- In contrast with American English, which uses *pract**ice*** and *lic**ense*** for both nouns and verbs, *pract**ice*** and *licen**ce*** are nouns while *pract**ise*** and *licen**se*** are verbs in Australian English.
- Words with **ae** and **oe** are often maintained in words such as ***oe**strogen* and *p**ae**dophilia*, in contrast to the American English practice of using **e** alone (as in ***e**strogen* and *p**e**dophilia*). The *Macquarie Dictionary* has noted a shift within Australian English towards using **e** alone, and now lists some words such as *encyclop**e**dia*, *f**e**tus*, ***e**on* or *h**e**matite* with the **e** spelling as the preferred variant and hence Australian English varies by word when it comes to these sets of words.

Minor systematic difference which occur between Australian and British spelling are as follows:[60]

- Words often ending in *eable* in British English end in *able* in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours *liv**able*** over *liv**eable***, *siz**able*** over *siz**eable***, *mov**able*** over *mov**eable***, etc., although both variants are acceptable.
- Words often ending in *eing* in British English end in *ing* in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours *a**ging*** over *ag**eing***, or *rout**ing*** over *rout**eing***, etc., although both variants are acceptable.
- Words often ending in *mme* in British English end in *m* in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours *progra**m*** over *progra**mme*** (in all contexts) and *aerogra**m*** over *aerogra**mme***, although both variants are acceptable. Similar to Canada, New Zealand and the United States, *(kilo)gra**m*** is the only spelling.[citation needed]

Other examples of individual words where the preferred spelling is listed by the *Macquarie Dictionary* as being different from current British spellings include *ana**log*** as opposed to *ana**logue***, *gue**r**illa* as opposed to *gue**rr**illa*, *verand**ah*** as opposed to *verand**a***, *bur**q**a* as opposed to *bur**k**a*, *past**ie*** (noun) as opposed to *past**y***, *neuro**n*** as opposed to *neuro**ne***, *hicc**up*** as opposed to *hicc**ough***, *anne**x*** as opposed to *anne**xe***, *ra**cc**oon* as opposed to *ra**c**oon* etc.[60] Unspaced forms such as *onto*, *anytime*, *alright* and *anymore* are also listed as being equally as acceptable as their spaced counterparts.[60] Additionally, the spellings *donut* and *percent* as opposed to *doughnut* and *per cent* have become more common than their counterparts;[62][63] however, the official Australian style manual considers *percent* to be a misspelling.[64]

There is variation between and within varieties of English in the treatment of **-t** and **-ed** endings for past tense verbs. The Macquarie Dictionary does not favour either, but it suggests that *leap**ed***, *lean**ed*** or *learn**ed*** (with **-ed** endings) are more common but *spel**t*** and *burn**t*** (with **-t** endings) are more common.[60]

Different spellings have existed throughout Australia's history. What are today regarded as American spellings were popular in Australia throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the Victorian Department of Education endorsing them into the 1970s and *[The Age](/source/The_Age)* newspaper until the 1990s. This influence can be seen in the spelling of the [Australian Labor Party](/source/Australian_Labor_Party) and also in some place names such as [Victor Harbor](/source/Victor_Harbor,_South_Australia). The *[Concise Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Concise_Oxford_English_Dictionary)* has been credited with re-establishing the dominance of the British spellings in the 1920s and 1930s.[65] For a short time during the late 20th century, [Harry Lindgren](/source/Harry_Lindgren)'s 1969 spelling reform proposal ([Spelling Reform 1](/source/Spelling_Reform_1) or SR1) gained some support in Australia and was adopted by the [Australian Teachers' Federation](/source/Australian_Teachers'_Federation) and minister [Doug Everingham](/source/Doug_Everingham) in personal correspondence.[66]

### Punctuation and style

Prominent [style guides](/source/List_of_style_guides) for the Government of Australia is the *Australian Government Style Manual.* It is a comprehensive guide that includes usage guides on grammar, punctuation, and conventions for government writers and editors.[67]

To indicate speech, both single and double inverted comma [quotation marks](/source/Quotation_marks_in_English) are used. Generally, double quotation marks are preferred for use in the first instance, with single quotation marks used for quotes within quotes.[68][69] However, the opposite is true in the government and corporate sectors, where double quotation marks are reserved for quotes within quotes.[70][71] The punctuation mark used to end a sentence is called a full stop; a period usually refers to menstruation or an interval of time.

The DD/MM/YYYY [date format](/source/Calendar_date) is followed and the 12-hour clock is generally used in everyday life (the 24-hour clock is used by the military and police, and for transport timetables).

The country has used the [metric system](/source/Metric_system) since the 1970s, though the [imperial system](/source/Imperial_system) is still sometimes used informally, especially among older Australians, in idioms (e.g. to "go the extra mile", not "go the extra kilometre") and in reference to a person's height.

In [betting](/source/Sports_betting), [decimal odds](/source/Odds#Gambling_usage) are used in preference to fractional odds, as used in the United Kingdom, or moneyline odds in the United States.

### Keyboard layout

There are [two major English language keyboard layouts](/source/British_and_American_keyboards), the United States layout and the United Kingdom layout. Keyboards and keyboard software for the Australian market universally uses the US keyboard layout, which lacks the [pound (£)](/source/Pound_sign), [euro](/source/Euro_sign) and [negation](/source/Negation) symbols and uses a different layout for punctuation symbols from the UK keyboard layout.

## Demographics

### By ancestry

Percentage of people from different ancestries that speak English (2021)[72] Nationality Percentage Native[nationality 1] Fluent[nationality 2] Afghan <4.0% 68.6% American 89.4% 93.2% Argentinian 20.2% 92.6% Austrian 63.9% 95.1% Bangladeshi 6.8% 93.5% Bosnian 11.7% 75.8% Brazilian 15.1% 93.9% British 97.3% >99.0% Burmese 11.6% 57.0% Cambodian 8.7% 56.4% Canadian 88.1% 95.9% Chilean 19.0% 85.6% Chinese 3.4% 66.1% Colombian 10.7% 90.5% Croatian 23.8% 78.5% Cypriot 17.3% 76.3% Dutch 71.2% 96.1% East Timorese 15.1% 67.2% Egyptian 21.6% 89.2% Ethiopian 12.1% 84.4% Fijian 25.8% 95.2% Filipino 25.0% 96.8% French 34.1% 96.9% German 59.5% 96.1% Greek 10.8% 65.1% Hong Kong 15.3% 86.5% Hungarian 41.8% 89.2% Indian 13.4% 94.7% Indonesian 20.7% 89.6% Iranian 8.2% 85.5% Iraqi <5.0% 67.0% Irish 94.8% 90.0% Israeli 33.1% 96.5% Italian 25.8% 78.9% Japanese 20.3% 85.2% Kenyan 35.5% 96.3% Lao 13.5% 61.2% Lebanese 10.5% 76.8% Macedonian 11.1% 73.5% Malaysian 32.8% 86.4% Maltese 49.0% 87.8% Mauritian 28.5% 96.5% Mexican 18.2% 96.6% Nepali 3.1% 96.1% New Zealand 89.1% 91.5% Pakistani 7.7% 92.9% Palestinian 14.2% 80.8% Papua New Guinean 76.9% 93.8% Peruvian 21.8% 93.5% Polish 28.8% 87.8% Portuguese 28.1% 75.9% Romanian 27.1% 88.5% Russian 18.6% 86.1% Samoan 16.9% 88.0% Saudi Arabian 16.2% 92.2% Serbian 15.6% 81.2% Singaporean 54.5% 96.4% Somali 6.5% 79.1% South African 73.6% 98.1% South Korean 10.3% 70.3% South Sudanese 7.5% 86.5% Spanish 29.0% 86.4% Sri Lankan 21.8% 93.5% Sudanese 10.2% 83.5% Swedish 44.9% 98.3% Syrian 3.2% 65.9% Taiwanese 7.5% 73.7% Thai 21.0% 78.3% Tongan 15.4% 81.0% Turkish 12.1% 69.1% Ukrainian 19.2% 82.9% Venezuelan 13.7% 93.9% Vietnamese 5.2% 58.7% Zimbabwean 61.7% 98.4%

1. Percentage of people who speak English at home.

1. Percentage of people who speak another language at home who are fluent in English.

## See also

- *[The Australian National Dictionary](/source/The_Australian_National_Dictionary)*
- [Australian English vocabulary](/source/Australian_English_vocabulary)
- [New Zealand English](/source/New_Zealand_English)
- [South African English](/source/South_African_English)
- [Zimbabwean English](/source/Zimbabwean_English)
- [Falkland Islands English](/source/Falkland_Islands_English)
- [Commonwealth English](/source/Commonwealth_English)
- [Diminutives in Australian English](/source/Diminutives_in_Australian_English)
- [Sound correspondences between English accents](/source/Sound_correspondences_between_English_accents)
- [Strine](/source/Strine)

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1. *The Macquarie Dictionary*, Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005. Note: Entries with *Chiefly US* usage note in the Macquarie Dictionary and reference to corresponding Australian entry.

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1. Siegel, Jeff (2010). *Second Dialect Acquisition*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51687-7.

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### Works cited

- Cox, Felicity & Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English", *Journal of the International Phonetic Association*. **37** (3): 341–350, [doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025100307003192). [S2CID 232349884](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232349884)

## Further reading

- Korhonen, Minna (2017). [*Perspectives on the Americanisation of Australian English: A Sociolinguistic Study of Variation*](http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-951-51-3560-5) (PhD). [University of Helsinki](/source/University_of_Helsinki). ISBN 978-951-51-3559-9.
- Mitchell, Alexander G. (1995). *The Story of Australian English*. Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre.

## External links

- [Aussie English, The Illustrated Dictionary of Australian English](http://alanwood.id.au/aussie-english/)
- [free newsletter from the Australian National Dictionary Centre, which includes articles on Australian English](https://www.oup.com.au/dictionaries/australian-national-dictionary/ozwords)
- [R. Mannell, F. Cox and J. Harrington (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology](http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/index.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090120122833/http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/index.html) 20 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Macquarie University
- [Aussie English for beginners](http://www.nma.gov.au/kidz/aussie_english_for_the_beginner/)—the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge at the National Museum of Australia.

1. The vowel /ʉː/ is diphthongised in all the major Australian accents; in General Australian, the most widespread Australian accent, the vowel is pronounced as [ɪ̈ɯ]. See [Australian English phonology](/source/Australian_English_phonology) for a more detailed analysis.

1. The boundary between monophthongs and diphthongs is somewhat fluid: /ɪə/, for example, is commonly realised as [ɪː], particularly in closed syllables, though also found in open syllables such as *we're*, *here*, and so on. In open syllables particularly, the pronunciation varies from the bisyllabic [ɪːa], through the diphthong [ɪə], to the long vowel [ɪː].

1. The vowel /iː/ has an onset [ɪi̯], except before laterals. The onset is often lowered to [əi], so that "beat" is [bəit] for some speakers.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Australian English](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.