# Atar

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Zoroastrian concept of holy fire

For other uses, see [Atar (disambiguation)](/source/Atar_(disambiguation)).

Not to be confused with [Attar](/source/Attar_(disambiguation)) or [Atari](/source/Atari).

For the Australian student grading system, see [Australian Tertiary Admission Rank](/source/Australian_Tertiary_Admission_Rank).

Atar God of Fire Fire bowl on a coin of the Sasanian emperor Ardashir Babakan. Other names Ataxsh, Atash, Atarsh, Adar, Adur, Azar Avestan Ātar 𐬁𐬙𐬀𐬭 Affiliation The Thirty-Three Deities, Guardians of the Days of the Month, The Twelve Deities, Four Elements Symbol Fire, Light and Illumination Sacred flower Sunflower Attributes Guardian of Fire, Giver of Warmth Day 9th of each month in the Iranian calendar Gender Male Festivals Azargān Associated deities Asha Vahishta, Verethragna, Sraosha Equivalents Greek Hephaestus Roman Vulcan Indian Agni

Part of a series on Zoroastrianism Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra Asha Vohu Manah Persia/Iran Faravahar Avestan Divine entities Amesha Spentas Yazatas Mithra Ahuras Daevas Fravashi Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Zoroastrian literature Avesta Ashem Vohu Ahuna Vairya Yenghe hatam Airyaman ishya Fire Temples 101 Names of Ahura Mazda Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Farnbag Adur Gushnasp Cypress of Kashmar Gathas Yasna Vendidad Visperad Yashts Khordeh Avesta The Rivayats Ab-Zohr Accounts and legends Dēnkard Bundahišn Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti History and culture Zurvanism Mazdakism Khurramites Gayomarthians Azarkeivanian Mithraism Calendar Festivals Initiation Kushti Sedreh Marriage Burial Adherents Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan China Sichuan India Parsis Iranis Iran Iraq Pakistan Russia United States Uzbekistan Persecution of Zoroastrians Related topics Zoroastrianism and slavery Criticism of Zoroastrianism Zoroastrian cosmology Religious influences on Zoroastrianism Religion portal v t e

**Atar** ([Avestan](/source/Avestan_language): 𐬁𐬙𐬀𐬭, romanized: *ātar*) is the [Zoroastrian](/source/Zoroastrianism) concept of [holy fire](/source/Fire_worship), sometimes described in abstract terms as "burning and unburning fire" or "visible and invisible fire" (Mirza, 1987:389). It is considered to be the visible presence of [Ahura Mazda](/source/Ahura_Mazda) and his [Asha](/source/Asha) through the eponymous [Yazata](/source/Yazata). The rituals for purifying a fire are performed 1,128 times a year.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

In the [Avestan language](/source/Avestan_language), *ātar* is an attribute of sources of heat and light, of which the nominative singular form is *ātarš*, source of [Persian](/source/Persian_language) *ātaš* (fire). It was once thought to be etymologically related to the [Avestan](/source/Avestan) *āθrauuan* / *aθaurun* ([Vedic](/source/Vedic_Sanskrit) *[atharvan](/source/Atharvan)*), a type of priest, but that is now considered unlikely (Boyce, 2002:16). The ultimate etymology of *ātar*, previously unknown (Boyce, 2002:1), is now believed to be from the [Indo-European](/source/Proto-Indo-European_language) *hxehxtr- 'fire'. This would make it a cognate to [Latin](/source/Latin) *[ater](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ater#Latin)* (black) and to [Albanian](/source/Albanian_language) *[vatër](/source/Vat%C3%ABr)* (definite form: *vatra*) "hearth", "fireplace", which was loaned to [Romanian](/source/Romanian_language) *vatră* "hearth", "fireplace", and thereafter spread to [Serbo-Croat](/source/Serbo-Croatian_language) *vatra* "fire" and [Ukrainian](/source/Ukrainian_language) *vatra* "bonfire".[1][2]

In later Zoroastrianism, *ātar* ([Middle Persian](/source/Persian_language): 𐭠𐭲𐭥𐭥𐭩 *ādar* or *ādur*) is iconographically conflated with fire itself, which in Middle Persian is 𐭠𐭲𐭧𐭱 *ātaxsh*, one of the primary objects of Zoroastrian symbolism.

## In scripture

### In the Gathic texts

*Atar* is already evident in the [Gathas](/source/Gathas), the oldest texts of the compendium of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta) and believed to have been composed by [Zoroaster](/source/Zoroaster) himself. At this juncture, as in the *[Yasna Haptanghaiti](/source/Yasna_Haptanghaiti)* (the seven-chapter [Yasna](/source/Yasna) that structurally interrupts the Gathas and is linguistically as old as the Gathas themselves), *atar* is still—with only one exception—an abstract concept simply an instrument, a medium, of the Creator and is not yet the divinity (*[yazata](/source/Yazata)*) of heat and light that *atar* was to become in the later texts.

In the most ancient texts, *atar* is a medium, a faculty, through which judgement is passed and reflects the pre-Zoroastrian institution of [ordeal by heat](/source/Trial_by_ordeal) (Avestan: *garmo-varah*, heat ordeal; *cf.* Boyce 1996:ch. 6). Justice is administered through *atar* (*Yasna* 31.3, 34.4, 36.2, 47.2), the blazing *atar* (31.19, 51.9), through the heat of *atar* (43.4), through the blazing, shining, molten metal (*ayangha Khshushta*, 30.7, 32.7, 51.9). An individual who has passed the fiery test, has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity (30.7). However, among all the references to *atar* in the oldest texts, it is only once addressed independently of [Ahura Mazda](/source/Ahura_Mazda). In this exception, *atar* is spoken of in the third person masculine singular: "He detects sinners by hand-grasping" (*Yasna* 34.4). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all." (Boyce, 2002:1)

Also in the early texts, tangential to its role in establishing guilt, *atar* is the light of revelation through which Zoroaster is selected by Ahura Mazda, the *Zarathushtra Mainyu Athra* (*Yasna* 31.3), radiated by Ahura Mazda (43.9), bearing the conviction of "Good Purpose" (*[Vohu Manah](/source/Vohu_Manah)*, 43.4; see also [Amesha Spenta](/source/Amesha_Spenta)), and enlightening one's inner-self (46.7). Within this framework of the concept of divine illumination, *atar* radiates the "other lights" (31.7), the essence (of Ahura Mazda) from which insight and wisdom permeate the universe. So also Zoroaster's injunction to always pray in the presence of *atar*—either towards the sun, or towards their own hearths—so as to better concentrate their devotions on *[asha](/source/Asha)*, righteousness, and the virtue that should be striven for (*Yasna* 43.9, see also Boyce, 1975:455).

### In later texts

*Atsho* (Atar) on the reverse of a coin of [Kushan](/source/Kushan_Empire) ruler [Huvishka](/source/Huvishka) (150-180 CE).

The Gathic role of *atar* as the medium for detecting guilt is not directly evident in the later texts of the Avesta, but reappears in modified form as an allegory of burning and annihilating the [Angra Mainyu](/source/Angra_Mainyu) through righteousness, "where Asha Vahishta is identified at times with the household fire on the hearth." There, "identification in the realms of matter and of spirit serves only to bring more into prominence the main tenets of Zoroaster's teachings in regard to Asha" (Dhalla, 1938:170). A vestige of the ancient institution of ordeal by heat is nonetheless present in *[Vendidad](/source/Vendidad)* 4.54–55, where speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is punishable by flogging and is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt." The *[Zend](/source/Zend)* translation/commentary on this passage translates "blazing" as "having brimstone and sulphur", and notes that innocence or guilt was established by the consumption of this "guilt-detecting liquid". Similarly, in the *[Denkard](/source/Denkard)*, Adharbad Maraspand—the [Sassanid](/source/Sasanian_Empire) era high-priest to whom the collation of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta) texts is attributed—is purported to have nine measures of "unburning molten zinc" applied to his chest as proof of accuracy of the sacred texts.

Seen chronologically, the transition from *atar* as a vehicle of judgement to *Atar [Yazata](/source/Yazata)* the divinity presiding over blazing fire is abrupt. While the older Gathic Avestan texts have heat (and thus fire) associated with harsh judgement, the [Younger Avestan](/source/Younger_Avestan) texts have the divinity *Atar* completely representing and being represented by fire itself; and associated with warmth and light and essential for growth. *Asha Vahishta*'s association with *atar* is however carried forward, and they are often mentioned together (*Yasna* 62.3, *Nyashes* 5.9, etc.). So also in their roles as protectors, for "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" (*[Yasht](/source/Yasht)* 13.77).

It is in the later texts that *Atar* is personified as "the son" of Ahura Mazda (standard appellation, *[Yasna](/source/Yasna)* 25.7 et al.) and is addressed as "full of glory and full of healing remedies" (*Nyash* 5.6). In *Yasna* 17.11, *Atar* is "master of the house", recalling the role of the hearth fire in the Gathas. The same passage enumerates the "five kinds of fire":

1. *atar berezi-savah*, "the highly beneficent *atar*", qualified in *Zend* texts as "the fire that eats food but drinks no water", and the kind of fire that burns in an *[Atash-Behram](/source/Atash_Behram)*, the highest grade of [fire temple](/source/Fire_temple).

1. *atar vohu-fryana*, "the *atar* of good affection", cognate with [bhaga](/source/Bhaga) and [friend](/source/Friendship)), later qualified as "the fire diffusing goodness", and "the fire that consumes both water and food".

1. *atar urvazishta*, "the *atar* of greatest bliss", later qualified as "the fire of happy life", and "the fire that drinks water but eats no food".

1. *atar vazishta*, "the *atar* most swift", later qualified as the fire in clouds, i.e. lightning, and as "the fire that neither drinks water nor eats food".

1. *atar spenishta*, "the *atar* most holy",[3] cognate Balto-Slavic *[šventas](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Slavic/sv%C4%99t%D1%8A)* "holy") ( described in "Zend" texts as "the fire of prosperity" and as the spiritual fire burning before [Ohrmuzd](/source/Ahura_Mazda).

The description of the fires in the Sassanid era commentaries (the *Zend* texts) differs slightly from those described in the *[Bundahishn](/source/Bundahishn)* ("Original Creation", completed in the 11th or 12th century). In the latter, the description of the first and last kind of fire is reversed.

## In culture and tradition

A [Parsi](/source/Parsi_people)-Zoroastrian *Jashan* ceremony (here the blessing of a home in [Pune](/source/Pune), India)

### As a divinity

During the late [Achaemenid era](/source/Achaemenid_dynasty), *adar*—as the quintessence of the [Yazata](/source/Yazata) *Adar*—was incorporated in the Zoroastrian hierarchy of divinities. In that position, *Adar* aids *Asha Vahishta* (Avestan, [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian): *Ardvahisht*), the [Amesha Spenta](/source/Amesha_Spenta) responsible for the luminaries. From among the flowers associated with the [Yazatas](/source/Yazata), *Adar*'s is the [marigold (*calendula*)](/source/Calendula) (*Bundahishn* 27.24).

The importance of the divinity *Adar* is evident from a dedication to the entity in the [Zoroastrian calendar](/source/Zoroastrian_calendar): *Adar* is one of the only five [Yazatas](/source/Yazata) that have a month-name dedication. Additionally, *Adar* is the name of the ninth day of the month in the Zoroastrian religious calendar, and the ninth month of the year of the civil Iranian calendar of 1925 ([modern Persian](/source/Modern_Persian): *[Azar](/source/Azar)*) which has month-names derived from those used by the Zoroastrian calendar.

In Zoroastrian cosmogony, *Adar* was the seventh of the seven creations of the material universe. It is only with *Adar*'s assistance, who serves as the life-force, that the other six creations begin their work (*Bundahishn* 3.7–8; more logically explained in *Zatspram* 3.77–83).

### The cult of fire

Although Zoroastrians revere fire in any form, the temple fire is not literally for the reverence of fire, but together with clean water (see [Aban](/source/Aban)), is an agent of ritual purity. Clean, white "ash for the purification ceremonies [is] regarded as the basis of ritual life", which "are essentially the rites proper to the tending of a domestic fire, for the temple cult is that of the hearth fire raised to a new solemnity" (Boyce, 1975:455). For, "the man who sacrifices unto fire with fuel in his hand, with the *[Baresman](/source/Barsom)* in his hand, with milk in his hand, with the mortar for crushing the branches of the sacred [Haoma](/source/Haoma) in his hand, is given happiness" (*Yasna* 62.1; *Nyashes* 5.7)

The Zoroastrian cult of fire is apparently much younger than Zoroastrianism itself and appears at approximately the same time as the shrine cult, first evident in the 4th century BCE (roughly contemporaneous with the introduction of *Adar* as a divinity). There is no allusion to a temple cult of fire in the Avesta proper, nor is there any [old Persian language](/source/Old_Persian) word for one. Moreover, Boyce suggests that the temple cult of fire was instituted in opposition to the image/shrine cult and "no actual ruins of a fire temple have been identified from before the Parthian period" (Boyce, 1975:454).

That the cult of fire was a doctrinal modification and absent from early Zoroastrianism is still evident in the later *Atash Nyash*: in the oldest passages of that liturgy, it is the hearth fire that speaks to "all those for whom it cooks the evening and morning meal", which Boyce observes is not consistent with sanctified fire. The temple cult is an even later development: From [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus) it is known that in the mid-5th century BCE the Zoroastrians worshipped to the open sky, ascending mounds to light their fires (*[The Histories](/source/Histories_(Herodotus))*, i.131). [Strabo](/source/Strabo) confirms this, noting that in the 6th century, the sanctuary at Zela in [Cappadocia](/source/Cappadocia) was an artificial mound, walled in, but open to the sky (*[Geographica](/source/Geographica_(Strabo))* XI.8.4.512).

By the [Parthian era](/source/Parthia) (250 BCE–226 CE), Zoroastrianism had in fact two kinds of places of worship: One, apparently called *bagin* or *ayazan*, sanctuaries dedicated to a specific divinity, constructed in honor of the patron Yazata of an individual or family and included an icon or effigy of the honored. The second were the *atroshan*, the "places of burning fire", which as Boyce (1997:ch. 3) notes, became more and more prevalent as the iconoclastic movement gained support. Following the rise of the Sassanid dynasty, the shrines to the [Yazatas](/source/Yazatas) continued to exist, with the statues—by law—either being abandoned as empty sanctuaries, or being replaced by fire altars (so also the popular shrines to Meher/[Mithra](/source/Mithra) which retained the name *Darb-e Mehr*—Mithra's Gate—that is today one of the Zoroastrian technical terms for a fire temple).

Also, as Schippman observed (*loc. Cit.* Boyce, 1975:462), even during the [Sassanid era](/source/Sassanid_Empire) (226–650 CE) there is no evidence that the fires were categorized according to their sanctity. "It seems probable that there were virtually only two, namely the *Atash-i Vahram* [literally: "victorious fire", later misunderstood to be the Fire of [Bahram](/source/Verethragna), see Gnoli, 2002:512] and the lesser *Atash-i Adaran*, or 'Fire of Fires', a parish fire, as it were, serving a village or town quarter" (Boyce, 1975:462; Boyce 1966:63). Apparently, it was only in the *Atash-i Vahram* that fire was kept continuously burning, with the *Adaran* fires being annually relit. While the fires themselves had special names, the structures did not, and it has been suggested that "the prosaic nature of the middle Persian names (*kadag*, *man*, and *xanag* are all words for an ordinary house) perhaps reflect a desire on the part of those who fostered the temple-cult [...] to keep it as close as possible in character to the age-old cult of the hearth-fire, and to discourage elaboration" (Boyce, 2002:9).

The Indian [Parsi](/source/Parsi_people)-Zoroastrian practice of rendering the term *athornan* (derived from the Avestan language "athravan") as "fire-priest" in the English language is based on the mistaken assumption that the *athra** prefix derives from *atar* (Boyce, 2002:16–17). The term *athravan* does not appear in the Gathas, where a priest is a *zaotar*, and in its oldest attested use (*Yasna* 42.6) the term appears to be synonymous with "missionary". In the later *Yasht* 13.94, Zoroaster himself is said to have been an *athravan*, which in this context could not be a reference to *atar* if a cult of fire and its associated priesthood did not yet exist in Zoroaster's time. Thus, in all probability, "the word athravan has a different derivation." (Boyce, 2002:17)

### In mythology and folklore

In *Vendidad* 1, *Adar* battles [Aži Dahāka](/source/Zahhak), the great dragon of the sky.

In [Ferdowsi](/source/Ferdowsi)'s [Shahnameh](/source/Shahnameh), [Hoshang](/source/Hoshang), the grandson of the first man *[Gayomard](/source/Gayomard)*, discovers fire in a rock. He recognizes it as the divine glory of Ahura Mazda, offers homage to it, and instructs his people to so as well. Also in the Shahnameh is the legend of [Sevavash](/source/Siy%C3%A2vash), who passes through "the unburning fire" as proof of his innocence.

### As a royal symbol

Silver coin of [Ardashir I](/source/Ardashir_I) with a fire altar on its reverse (180 – 242 AD).

During the Sassanid era (226–650 CE), the symbol of Fire plays much the same role that the winged sun [Faravahar](/source/Faravahar) did during the [Achaemenid period](/source/Achaemenid_Empire) (648–330 BCE). Beginning with [Ardashir I](/source/Ardashir_I), the founder of the [Sassanid Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire), many of the kings of the dynasty issued one or more coins with a symbol of Fire on the verso, and seals and bullae with the fire symbol were common.

The first silver coins of the empire have helmeted busts of [Ardashir I](/source/Ardashir_I) (*r.* 226–241) or his father [Papak](/source/Papak) on the obverse (a figure of the ruling monarch on the obverse is consistent throughout the dynasty), with a representation of a fire altar, accompanied by the legend *atash i artakhshir*, "Fire of Ardeshir", on the reverse. Ardashir's son, [Shapur I](/source/Shapur_I) (*r.* 241–272), has much the same image but adds two attendants at the fire altar. On the coins of [Hormizd I](/source/Hormizd_I) (also known as Ardashir II, *r.* 272–273), the emperor himself tends the fire with the help of an attendant. [Bahram II](/source/Bahram_II) (276–293) also appears himself, accompanied by what may be his queen and son. [Narseh](/source/Narseh) (*r.* 293–303) also attends the fire himself, this time alone. On the coins of [Shapur III](/source/Shapur_III) (*r.* 383–388), a divinity appears to be emerging from the fire. The shape of the fire altar in the coins of [Yazdegerd II](/source/Yazdegerd_II) (*r.* 438–457) are similar to those in present-day fire temples. The legend introduced under Ardeshir yields to a mint mark and year of issue under [Peroz](/source/Peroz_I) (*r.* 457–484), a feature evident in all the coins of the remaining dynasty.

## In technology

Atar is the name of a French jet engine, developed and produced by the SNECMA company.

## See also

- *[Aban](/source/Aban)*, "the waters", which is of similar importance to [Zoroastrianism](/source/Zoroastrianism).

- The [Gathas](/source/Gathas), the most sacred texts of the [Avesta](/source/Avesta)

- *[Yazatas](/source/Yazata)* and *[Amesha Spentas](/source/Amesha_Spenta)* as Zoroastrian divinities

- Dedication to *Adar* in the [Zoroastrian calendar](/source/Zoroastrian_calendar)

- [Agni](/source/Agni)

- [Luminiferous aether](/source/Luminiferous_aether)

- [Eitr](/source/Eitr), original substance of the original being, [Ymir](/source/Ymir), in the old Norse [cosmology](/source/Cosmology)

- [Eternal flame](/source/Eternal_flame)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Vermeer, Willem (2008). "The Prehistory of the Albanian Vowel System: A Preliminary Exploration". *Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics*. 32:Evidence and Counter-Evidence: Essays in honour of Frederik Kortlandt. v 1: Balto-Slavic and Indo-European Linguistics: 591–608. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40997529](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40997529). Romanian also famously borrowed *vatër* 'hearth' with patently Tosk *va-* and proceeded to spread it to wherever Vlachs expanded subsequently.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). [*Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture - James Mallory - Google Boeken*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tzU3RIV2BWIC&q=atars&pg=PA202). Taylor & Francis. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781884964985](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781884964985). Retrieved 2012-08-27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Boyce_AmeshaSpenta_3-0)** Boyce, Mary (1983), "Aməša Spənta", *Encyclopaedia Iranica*, vol. 1, New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 933–936.

## Bibliography

- Dhalla, Maneckji Nusservanji (1938). *History of Zoroastrianism*. New York: OUP. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-404-12806-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-404-12806-8). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

- Boyce, Mary (1975). "On the Zoroastrian Temple Cult of Fire". *Journal of the American Oriental Society*. **95** (3). Ann Arbor: AOS/UMich. Press: 454–465. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/599356](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F599356). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [599356](https://www.jstor.org/stable/599356).

- Boyce, Mary (1984). "On the Antiquity of Zoroastrian Apocalyptic". *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies*. **47/1**. London: SOAS: 57–75. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0041977x0002214x](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x0002214x).

- Boyce, Mary (1996). *History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. I, The early period*. Leiden: Brill. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-10474-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10474-7).

- Boyce, Mary (1997). *History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. II, Under the Achamenians*. Leiden: Brill. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-06506-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06506-7).

- Boyce, Mary (2002). "Ātaš". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. New York: Mazda Pub. pp. 1–5.

- Boyce, Mary (2002). "Ātaškada". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. New York: Mazda Pub. pp. 9–10.

- Boyce, Mary (2002). "Āθravan". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. New York: Mazda Pub. pp. 16–17.

- M. Boyce, “ĀΘRAVAN-,” Encyclopædia Iranica, III/1, pp. 16-17, available online at [ĀΘRAVAN-](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/atravan-priest) - www.iranicaonline.org

- Boyce, Mary (2002). "Ādur". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. New York: Mazda Pub. pp. 471–472.

- Drower, Elizabeth Stephens (1944). "The Role of Fire in Parsi Ritual". *Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute*. **74** (1/2). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 75–89. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2844296](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2844296). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2844296](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2844296).

- Duchesne-Guillemin, Jacques (1963). *A Form of Fire*. pp. 14–17. In JamaspAsa, Kaikhushroo M., ed. (1964). *Unvala Memorial Volume*. Bombay: K. R. Cama Oriental Institute.

- Gnoli, Gherardo (2002). "Bahram in old and middle Iranian texts". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. New York: Mazda Pub. pp. 510–513.

- Mirza, Hormazdiar (1964). *Outlines of Parsi History*. Bombay: Amalgamated.

- Moore, George Foot (1912). ["Zoroastrianism"](https://zenodo.org/record/1428626). *The Harvard Theological Review*. **5/2** (2): 180–226. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0017816000013456](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0017816000013456).

- [Lubotsky, Alexander](/source/Alexander_Lubotsky) (2011), "Indo-Aryan Inherited Lexicon", *Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Project*, Brill.

## Further reading

- Jahanian, Darius (2006-03-20). ["Fire 'Athra' and Fiery Test"](http://www.vohuman.org/Article/Fire%20(Athra)%20and%20Fiery%20Test.htm).

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Atar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atar) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atar?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.