# Assault

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Physical or verbal attack of another person

This article is about the criminal act. For tortious aspects of assault, see [Assault (tort)](/source/Assault_(tort)). For other uses, see [Assault (disambiguation)](/source/Assault_(disambiguation)).

"Assailants" redirects here. For the EP, see [Assailants (EP)](/source/Assailants_(EP)). For the film, see [Assailant (film)](/source/Assailant_(film)).

Criminal law Elements Actus reus Mens rea Causation Concurrence Scope of criminal liability Accessory Accomplice Complicity Corporate Principal Vicarious Severity of offense Felony (or Indictable offense) Misdemeanor (or Summary offense) Infraction (also called violation) Inchoate offenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation Offenses against the person Homicide Murder Manslaughter Corporate manslaughter Attempted murder Negligent homicide Assault Battery Mayhem Mutilation Torture Kidnapping False imprisonment Human trafficking Stalking Harassment Intimidation Domestic violence Hate crime Sexual & moral offences Rape Sexual assault Child sexual abuse Sex trafficking Sexual slavery Cybersex trafficking Sexual harassment Fornication Adultery Bigamy Incest Indecent exposure Voyeurism Obscenity Groping Offences against property Theft / Larceny Robbery Bank robbery Burglary Home invasion Arson Embezzlement Extortion Blackmail Fraud False pretenses Forgery Uttering Possessing stolen property Shoplifting Vandalism Mischief Cybercrime Offences against public justice Perjury Perverting the course of justice Contempt of court Bribery Malfeasance in office Misprision of felony Compounding a felony Offences against public order & state Treason Sedition Espionage Subversion Lèse-majesté Apostasy Genocide War crimes Piracy Political corruption Insider trading Smuggling Arms trafficking People smuggling Drug offences Offences against animals Cruelty to animals Poaching Wildlife smuggling Bestiality Defences to liability Actual innocence Self-defense Defense of others Defense of property Necessity Duress Insanity Diminished responsibility Automatism Intoxication Mistake of fact Mistake of law Ignorantia juris non excusat Infancy Entrapment Provocation Consent Statute of limitations Amnesty / Pardon Portals Law v t e

In the terminology of [law](/source/Law), an **assault** is the act of causing physical harm or [unwanted](/source/Consent) physical contact to another person,[1] or, in some legal definitions, the threat or attempt to do so.[2] It is both a [crime](/source/Crime) and a [tort](/source/Tort) and, therefore, may result in [criminal prosecution](/source/Criminal_prosecution), [civil liability](/source/Civil_liability), or both. Additionally, assault is a criminal act in which a person intentionally causes fear of physical harm or offensive contact to another person.[3][4] Assault can be committed with or without a weapon and can range from physical violence to threats of violence.[5][6] Assault is frequently referred to as an attempt to commit [battery](/source/Battery_(crime)), which is the deliberate use of physical [force](/source/Force_(law)) against another person. The deliberate inflicting of fear, apprehension, or terror is another definition of assault that can be found in several legal systems. Depending on the severity of the offense, assault may result in a fine, imprisonment, or even death.[7][8]

Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and [tort law](/source/Assault_(tort)).

Traditionally, [common law](/source/Common_law) legal systems have separate definitions for assault and [battery](/source/Battery_(crime)). When this distinction is observed, battery refers to the actual bodily contact, whereas assault refers to a credible threat or attempt to cause battery.[9] Some jurisdictions combined the two offenses into a single crime called "assault and battery", which then became widely referred to as just "assault".[10][11] The result is that in many of these jurisdictions, assault has taken on a definition that is more in line with the traditional definition of battery. The legal systems of [civil law](/source/Civil_law_(legal_system)) and [Scots law](/source/Scots_law) have never distinguished assault from battery.

Legal systems generally acknowledge that assaults can vary greatly in severity.[12] In the [United States](/source/United_States), an assault can be charged as either a [misdemeanor](/source/Misdemeanor) or a [felony](/source/Felony). In [England and Wales](/source/England_and_Wales) and [Australia](/source/Australia), it can be charged as either [common assault](/source/Common_assault), [assault occasioning actual bodily harm](/source/Assault_occasioning_actual_bodily_harm) (ABH) or [grievous bodily harm](/source/Grievous_bodily_harm) (GBH). Canada also has a three-tier system: assault, [assault causing bodily harm](/source/Assault_causing_bodily_harm) and [aggravated assault](/source/Aggravated_assault). Separate charges typically exist for [sexual assaults](/source/Sexual_assault), [affray](/source/Affray) and [assaulting a police officer](/source/Assaulting_a_constable_in_the_execution_of_his_duty). Assault may overlap with an [attempted](/source/Attempt) crime; for example, an assault may be charged as [attempted murder](/source/Attempted_murder) if it was done with intent to kill.

## Related definitions

### Battery

Battery is a criminal offense that involves the use of physical force against another person without their [consent](/source/Consent).[13][14][15] It is a type of assault and is considered a serious crime. Battery can include a wide range of actions, from slapping someone to causing serious harm or even death.[16][17] Depending on the severity of the offense, it can carry a wide range of punishments, including jail time, fines, and probation.

In jurisdictions that make a distinction between the two, assault usually accompanies [battery](/source/Battery_(crime)) if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See [common assault](/source/Common_assault). The elements of battery are that it is a volitional act,[18] done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur, and which causes such contact.[19]

### Aggravated assault

Aggravated assault is a violent crime that involves violence or the threat of violence.[20][21] It is generally described as an intentional act that causes another person to fear imminent physical harm or injury. This can include the use of a weapon, or the threat of using a weapon. It is usually considered a felony offense and can carry severe penalties. Aggravated assault is often considered a very serious crime and can lead to long-term prison sentences.[22][23][24]

[Aggravated](/source/Aggravation_(law)) assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a [deadly weapon](/source/Deadly_weapon).[25] A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to:

- cause serious bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon[26]

- have sexual relations with a person who is under the [age of consent](/source/Age_of_consent)

- cause bodily harm by recklessly operating a [motor vehicle](/source/Motor_vehicle) during [road rage](/source/Road_rage); often referred to as either *vehicular assault* or *aggravated assault with a motor vehicle*.

Aggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants.[27][28][29][30]

## Defenses

Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault:

### Consent

Exceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as [de minimis](/source/De_minimis) harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others.[31]

[Consent](/source/Consent_(criminal_law)) may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault.[32] This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual [sadomasochistic sexual activity](/source/Sadomasochism), the most notable case being the [Operation Spanner](/source/Operation_Spanner) case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game ([mixed martial arts](/source/Mixed_martial_arts), [wrestling](/source/Wrestling), [boxing](/source/Boxing), or [contact sports](/source/Contact_sports)), bodily adornment (*R v Wilson* [1996] Crim LR 573), or [horseplay](/source/Low_comedy) (*R v Jones* [1987] Crim LR 123). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish law, consent is not a defense for assault.[33]

### Arrest and other official acts

[Police officers](/source/Police_officers) and court officials have a general power to [use force](/source/Use_of_force) for the purpose of performing an [arrest](/source/Arrest) or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary.

### Punishment

In some jurisdictions such as [Singapore](/source/Caning_in_Singapore), [judicial corporal punishment](/source/Judicial_corporal_punishment) is part of the [legal system](/source/Legal_system). The officers who administer the punishment have [immunity](/source/Sovereign_immunity) from prosecution for assault.

In the United States, England, Northern Ireland, Australia and Canada, [corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian](/source/Corporal_punishment_in_the_home#Where_corporal_punishment_in_the_home_is_lawful) is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes "reasonable" varies in both statutory law and [case law](/source/Case_law). Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for [child abuse](/source/Child_abuse).

In [English law](/source/English_law), s. 58 [Children Act 2004](/source/Children_Act_2004) limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault.[34] This defence was abolished in Wales in 2022.[35]

Many countries, including some US states, also permit the use of controversial corporal punishment for [children in school](/source/School_corporal_punishment) or home.

### Prevention of crime

This may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence.

### Defense of property

Some jurisdictions allow force to be used in [defense of property](/source/Defence_of_property), to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 [Criminal Damage Act 1971](/source/Criminal_Damage_Act_1971) it may be argued that the defendant has a *lawful excuse* to damage property during the defense and a defense under s3 [Criminal Law Act 1967](/source/Criminal_Law_Act_1967)) subject to the need to deter [vigilantes](/source/Vigilante) and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that they felt threatened by the intruder's presence.

## By country

### Reported rate

The below table shows the rate of reported serious assaults for individual countries according to [United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime](/source/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime) for the last available year.[36]

Country Reported serious assaults per 100,000[36] Year Albania 5.2 2023 Algeria 105.7 2023 Andorra 326.9 2019 Antigua and Barbuda 15.0 2023 Argentina 370.3 2023 Armenia 7.9 2023 Australia 309.8 2023 Austria 48.9 2023 Azerbaijan 3.2 2021 Bahamas 906.1 2022 Bahrain 326.0 2008 Bangladesh 0.4 2006 Barbados 392.8 2023 Belarus 7.6 2019 Belgium 567.9 2023 Belize 312.4 2022 Benin 44.3 2017 Bermuda 58.2 2017 Bhutan 107.5 2020 Bolivia 91.6 2023 Bosnia and Herzegovina 24.9 2023 Botswana 775.6 2014 Brazil 106.1 2023 Brunei Darussalam 123.7 2006 Bulgaria 56.7 2023 Burundi 5.1 2014 Cabo Verde 587.2 2018 Cameroon 25.4 2023 Canada 226.9 2023 Chile 88.5 2023 Colombia 223.9 2023 Costa Rica 142.1 2023 Croatia 23.6 2023 Cyprus 11.6 2023 Czech Republic 39.4 2023 Denmark 34.8 2023 Dominica 989.3 2023 Dominican Republic 26.2 2023 Ecuador 37.1 2023 Egypt 0.4 2011 El Salvador 77.4 2022 England and Wales 950.7 2022 Estonia 2.7 2023 Eswatini 347.9 2021 Finland 32.0 2023 France 628.3 2023 Georgia 5.1 2019 Germany 182.8 2023 Ghana 156.6 2021 Greece 12.8 2023 Grenada 1958.5 2023 Guatemala 112.6 2023 Guinea 3.0 2007 Guinea-Bissau 109.2 2016 Guyana 169.4 2023 Haiti 11.7 2018 Honduras 22.1 2023 Hong Kong 50.5 2023 Hungary 136.6 2014 Iceland 49.8 2023 India 25.8 2013 Indonesia 12.0 2022 Iraq (Central) 0.0 2020 Ireland 109.9 2023 Israel 80.7 2023 Italy 1.4 2023 Ivory Coast 47.1 2008 Jamaica 81.9 2023 Japan 17.8 2023 Jordan 6.7 2023 Kazakhstan 11.0 2017 Kenya 41.6 2022 Kosovo 18.1 2021 Kuwait 24.5 2009 Kyrgyzstan 0.5 2020 Latvia 28.6 2023 Lebanon 118.5 2016 Lesotho 370.1 2009 Liechtenstein 234.9 2023 Lithuania 4.8 2023 Luxembourg 102.7 2023 Macau 0.1 2022 Madagascar 8.6 2015 Malaysia 10.5 2023 Maldives 77.2 2017 Malta 41.1 2023 Mauritius 21.2 2021 Mexico 47.7 2023 Moldova 4.4 2023 Monaco 536.0 2015 Mongolia 0.3 2023 Montenegro 23.8 2023 Morocco 120.1 2023 Mozambique 2.3 2009 Myanmar 1.7 2023 Namibia 336.8 2021 Nepal 0.2 2016 Netherlands 25.3 2023 New Zealand 1068.8 2023 Nicaragua 15.1 2019 Nigeria 9.1 2013 North Macedonia 8.2 2023 Northern Ireland 47.2 2023 Norway 37.1 2023 Oman 0.8 2023 Pakistan 12.8 2023 Palestine 13.0 2023 Panama 103.3 2023 Paraguay 9.1 2023 Peru 9.2 2022 Philippines 0.7 2023 Poland 13.3 2023 Portugal 7.3 2023 Puerto Rico 109.1 2022 Qatar 0.4 2021 Romania 1.0 2023 Russia 13.0 2020 Rwanda 29.7 2013 Saint Kitts and Nevis 359.3 2023 Saint Lucia 919.8 2023 Saudi Arabia 62.0 2019 Scotland 58.3 2023 Senegal 2.4 2010 Serbia 80.1 2023 Sierra Leone 337.1 2008 Singapore 6.7 2023 Slovakia 23.1 2023 Slovenia 7.7 2023 Solomon Islands 215.6 2008 South Africa 290.4 2017 South Korea 44.3 2023 Spain 55.3 2023 Sri Lanka 12.3 2019 St. Vincent and Grenadines 1117.2 2023 Suriname 137.7 2023 Sweden 45.5 2023 Switzerland 9.9 2023 Syria 0.7 2018 São Tomé and Príncipe 2.2 2011 Tajikistan 47.7 2011 Tanzania 4.5 2015 Thailand 28.0 2023 Trinidad and Tobago 49.0 2018 Turkey 101.8 2014 Turkmenistan 1.6 2006 Uganda 14.3 2017 Ukraine 3.8 2020 United Arab Emirates 2.0 2022 United States of America 277.9 2022 Uruguay 15.7 2023 Uzbekistan 3.9 2021 Vatican City 0.0 2023 Venezuela 6.3 2018 Yemen 0.1 2009 Zimbabwe 395.5 2008

### Estimates of prevalence

The percentage of population which was physically assaulted in the past 12 months according to [statistical surveys](/source/Statistical_survey) is shown in the below table.[37]

Country Female Male Total Year Argentina 1.9 2.7 2.3 2016 Australia 1.7 1.8 1.7 2023 Bangladesh 2.9 - - 2019 Belarus 0.5 1.0 - 2019 Benin 1.8 1.6 - 2021 Bolivia - - 0.5 2023 Cabo Verde 3.1 4.0 3.6 2016 Cameroon - - 36.8 2011 Canada 2.4 2.5 2.5 2019 Central African Republic 2.3 4.1 - 2018 Chad 2.2 1.3 - 2019 Chile 0.8 1.0 0.9 2023 Colombia 0.4 0.6 0.5 2022 Comoros 2.3 2.7 - 2022 Costa Rica 2.6 - - 2018 Cuba 0.2 0.6 - 2019 Czech Republic - - 3.7 2013 DR Congo 2.2 5.7 - 2017 Dominican Republic 2.7 2.9 2.8 2022 Egypt - - 7.0 2007 El Salvador 8.7 10.1 9.4 2019 England and Wales 1.4 2.1 1.7 2018 Estonia 1.1 2.2 1.7 2023 Eswatini 1.1 1.4 - 2021 Fiji 3.2 3.2 - 2021 Finland 6.4 4.5 5.5 2022 France 1.0 1.4 1.2 2022 Georgia 0.4 0.4 - 2018 Germany 1.3 2.8 2.0 2020 Guyana 2.3 4.7 - 2019 Honduras 2.0 2.4 - 2019 Iceland 1.9 2.2 2.1 2023 Indonesia 0.0 0.0 0.0 2022 Iraq 0.9 - - 2018 Ireland 1.0 2.0 2.0 2019 Israel 0.7 1.2 0.9 2024 Italy 1.0 1.4 1.2 2016 Jamaica 5.0 - - 2022 Kiribati 3.4 3.5 - 2018 Kyrgyzstan 0.4 - - 2018 Laos 6.0 - - 2016 Lesotho 2.5 4.8 - 2018 Madagascar 2.7 6.0 - 2018 Malawi 2.7 7.6 - 2019 Mexico 1.2 1.3 1.2 2023 Mongolia 4.3 5.3 - 2018 Montenegro 0.7 3.2 - 2018 Myanmar - - 9.7 2019 New Zealand - - 5.5 2014 Nigeria 1.8 2.4 2.1 2023 Northern Ireland - - 1.4 2019 Oman - - 0.6 2020 Pakistan 0.4 2.1 - 2019 Palestine - - 0.6 2020 Panama - - 1.4 2016 Paraguay 2.6 2.6 2.6 2019 Peru - - 2.3 2023 Philippines 5.0 - - 2017 Poland - - 2.0 2023 Portugal 1.6 1.4 1.5 2022 Saint Lucia - - 0.6 2018 Samoa 0.5 2.6 - 2019 Saudi Arabia - 0.5 0.5 2019 Scotland 1.3 1.8 1.6 2021 Serbia 1.0 - - 2019 Slovenia 1.1 0.5 0.8 2020 South Africa 0.3 0.8 0.6 2019 South Korea - - 0.3 2022 St. Vincent and Grenadines 45.0 29.0 - 2021 Suriname 1.5 1.6 - 2018 Sweden 2.2 3.2 2.7 2023 Switzerland 0.8 1.2 1.0 2021 Thailand 0.1 0.2 - 2022 Tonga 0.7 2.6 - 2019 Trinidad and Tobago 2.1 - - 2022 Tunisia 0.6 1.0 - 2023 Turkmenistan 0.0 - - 2019 Turks and Caicos Islands 1.6 1.5 - 2019 Tuvalu 4.8 2.9 - 2019 Uganda - - 5.4 2024 United States of America - - 1.2 2023 Uzbekistan 0.1 - - 2021 Vietnam 0.9 0.7 - 2020 Zimbabwe 3.4 6.3 - 2019

### Australia

The term 'assault', when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force.[38]

Each state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the [magistrates' court](/source/Magistrates'_court) of that state or indictable offences are heard in a district or supreme court of that state. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault.[39]

In New South Wales, the [Crimes Act 1900](/source/Crimes_Act_1900)[40] defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include:

#### Assault with further specific intent

- Acts done to the person with intent to murder[41]

- Wounding or grievous bodily harm[42]

- Use or possession of a weapon to resist arrest[43]

#### Assault causing certain injuries

- Actual bodily harm[44] – the term is not defined in the *Crimes Act*, but case law indicates actual bodily harm may include injuries such as bruises and scratches,[45] as well as psychological injuries[46] if the injury inflicted is more than merely transient (the injury does not necessarily need to be permanent)[47]

- Wounding[48] – where there is breaking of the skin;[45]

- Grievous bodily harm[49] – which includes the destruction of a fetus, permanent or serious disfiguring, and transmission of a grievous bodily disease[50]

#### Assault causing death

- Death[51]

- Death when intoxicated (in regards to the offender)[52]

### Canada

Assault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian [Criminal Code](/source/Criminal_Code_(Canada)).[53] There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to "tap", "pinch", "push", or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault.

The potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code.[53] This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim.

Some variations on the ordinary crime of assault include:

- Assault: The offence is defined by section 265 of the Code.[53]

- Assault with a weapon: Section 267(a) of the Code.[53]

- Assault causing [bodily harm](/source/Bodily_harm): Section 267(b) of the Code.[53]

- Aggravated assault: Section 268 of the Code.[53]

- Assaulting a peace officer, etc.: Section 270 of the Code.[53]

- Sexual assault: Section 271 of the Code.[53]

- Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm: Section 272 of the Code.[53]

- Aggravated sexual assault: See [aggravated sexual assault](/source/Aggravated_sexual_assault).

An individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm.

### Ancient Greece

Assault in Ancient Greece was normally termed [hubris](/source/Hubris). Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening [pride](/source/Pride), self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, "hubris" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich.

Violations of the law against hubris included, what would today be termed, assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible [rape](/source/Rape) of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property.[54] Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of [Demosthenes](/source/Demosthenes), a prominent statesman and orator in ancient [Greece](/source/Greece). These two examples occurred when first, in addition to other acts of violence, Meidias allegedly punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater ([Against Meidias](/source/Against_Meidias)), and second (Against Konon), when the defendant allegedly severely beat him.

Hubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, "outrageous treatment", in general.

The meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an "act of hubris", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. [Atë](/source/At%C3%AB), Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of their hubris, or great pride, that leads to their death or downfall.

Crucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a [zero-sum](/source/Zero-sum) game. [Rush Rehm](/source/Rush_Rehm) simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of "insolence, contempt, and excessive violence".

### India

The Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16,[55] sections 351 through 358.

Whoever makes any gesture, or any preparation intending or knowing it to be likely that such gesture or preparation will cause any person present to apprehend that he who makes that gesture or preparation is about to use criminal force to that person, is said to commit an assault.

— §351 of the Indian Penal Code[56]

The Code further explains that "mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to their gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault". Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states.

### Nigeria

The Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault.[57] Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with "intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her" or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for.[58]

### Pacific Islands

**Marshall Islands**

The offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code.[59] A person is guilty of this offence if they unlawfully offer or attempt, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another.

### Republic of Ireland

Section 2 of the [Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997](/source/Non-Fatal_Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1997) creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of [assault causing harm](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Assault_causing_harm&action=edit&redlink=1).

### South Africa

[South African law](/source/South_African_law) does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. *Assault* is a [common law crime](/source/Common_law_crime) defined as "unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him". The law also recognises the crime of *assault with intent to cause [grievous bodily harm](/source/Grievous_bodily_harm)*, where grievous bodily harm is defined as "harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health".[60] The common law crime of *[indecent assault](/source/Indecent_assault)* was repealed by the [Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007](/source/Criminal_Law_(Sexual_Offences_and_Related_Matters)_Amendment_Act%2C_2007), and replaced by a statutory crime of *[sexual assault](/source/Sexual_assault)*.

### United Kingdom

**Piracy with violence**
- Section 2 of the [Piracy Act 1837](/source/Piracy_Act_1837) provides that it is an offence, amongst other things, for a person, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, to assault, with intent to [murder](/source/Murder_in_English_law), any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel.

**Assault on an officer of Revenue and Customs**
- This offence (relating to officers of [HMRC](/source/Her_Majesty's_Revenue_and_Customs)) is created by section 32(1) of the [Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005](/source/Commissioners_for_Revenue_and_Customs_Act_2005).

**Assaulting an immigration officer**
- This offence is created by [section 22(1)](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2007/30/section/22) of the [UK Borders Act 2007](/source/UK_Borders_Act_2007).

**Assaulting an accredited financial investigator**
- This section is created by section 453A of the [Proceeds of Crime Act 2002](/source/Proceeds_of_Crime_Act_2002).[61]

**Assaulting a member of an international joint investigation team**
- This offence is created by [section 57(2)](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/15/section/57) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210226203609/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/15/section/57) 26 February 2021 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) of the [Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005](/source/Serious_Organised_Crime_and_Police_Act_2005).

**Attacks on internationally protected persons**
- Section 1(1)(a) of the [Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internationally_Protected_Persons_Act_1978&action=edit&redlink=1) (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on "protected persons" (including Heads of State).

**Attacks on UN Staff workers**
- Section 1(2)(a) of the [United Nations Personnel Act 1997](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Personnel_Act_1997&action=edit&redlink=1) (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff.

**Assault by person committing an offence under the Night Poaching Act 1828**
- This offence is created by section 2 of the [Night Poaching Act 1828](/source/Night_Poaching_Act_1828).

Abolished offences:

**Assault on customs and excise officers, etc.**
- Section 16(1)(a) of the [Customs and Excise Management Act 1979](/source/Customs_and_Excise_Management_Act_1979) (c.2) provided that it was an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of "assault" in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP [1976] Crim LR 121, [DC](/source/Divisional_Court_(England_and_Wales)). This offence was abolished and replaced by the [Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005](/source/Commissioners_for_Revenue_and_Customs_Act_2005).

**Assaulting a person designated under section 43 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005**
- This offence was created by [section 51(1)](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2005/15/section/51) of the [Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005](/source/Serious_Organised_Crime_and_Police_Act_2005). It related to officers of the [Serious Organized Crime Agency](/source/Serious_Organized_Crime_Agency) and was repealed when that agency was abolished.

#### England and Wales

See also: [Battery (crime) § England and Wales](/source/Battery_(crime)#England_and_Wales)

English law provides for two offences of assault: [common assault](/source/Common_assault) and [battery](/source/Battery_(crime)). Assault (or [common assault](/source/Common_assault)) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. *Violence* in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. The terms "assault" and "common assault" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as section 40(3)(a) of the [Criminal Justice Act 1988](/source/Criminal_Justice_Act_1988) (c. 33).

A common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in a [magistrates' court](/source/Magistrates'_court_(England_and_Wales)) in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the [Crown Court](/source/Crown_Court)). Additionally, if a defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed.

#### Aggravated assault

An assault which is aggravated by the scale of the injuries inflicted may be charged as offences causing "actual bodily harm" (ABH) or, in the severest cases, "[grievous bodily harm](/source/Grievous_bodily_harm)" (GBH).

**Assault occasioning actual bodily harm**
- This offence is created by section 47 of the [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100).

**Inflicting grievous bodily harm**
- Also referred to as "malicious wounding" or "unlawful wounding". This offence is created by section 20 of the [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100).

**Causing grievous bodily harm with intent**
- Also referred to as "wounding with intent". This offence is created by section 18 of the [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100).

Other aggravated assault charges refer to assaults carried out against a specific target or with a specific intent:

**Assault with intent to rob**
- The penalty for [assault with intent to rob](/source/Assault_with_intent_to_rob), a common law offence, is provided by section 8(2) of the [Theft Act 1968](/source/Theft_Act_1968).

**Racially or religiously aggravated common assault**
- This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the [Crime and Disorder Act 1998](/source/Crime_and_Disorder_Act_1998) (c. 37), defined in terms of the common law offence.

**Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm**
- This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the [Crime and Disorder Act 1998](/source/Crime_and_Disorder_Act_1998) (c. 37), defined in terms of the common law offence.

**[Assault with intent to resist arrest](/source/Assault_with_intent_to_resist_arrest)**
- This offence is created by section 38 of the [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100).

**Assaulting a constable in the execution of his duty**
- Section 89(1) of the [Police Act 1996](/source/Police_Act_1996) (c. 16) provides that it is an offence for a person to assault a [constable](/source/Constable) acting in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty. It is a summary offence with the same maximum penalty as common assault.

**Assaulting a traffic officer**
- This offence is created by section/10 section 10(1) of the [Traffic Management Act 2004](/source/Traffic_Management_Act_2004) (c. 18). This offence applies to [Traffic Wardens](/source/Traffic_Warden), [Civil Enforcement Officers](/source/Civil_enforcement_officer) and [PCSOs](/source/Police_community_support_officer) if they have been conferred with road traffic powers by their force.

**Assaulting a person designated or accredited under sections 38 or 39 or 41 or 41A of the Police Reform Act 2002**
- This offence is created by section/46 section 46(1) of the [Police Reform Act 2002](/source/Police_Reform_Act_2002) (c. 30). Those sections relate respectively to persons given police powers by a chief police officer, such as [PCSOs](/source/PCSO%3A_Police_Community_Support_Officer) detention officers or contractors retained by police, accredited contractors under a community safety accreditation scheme, and weights and measures inspectors.

**Assault on a prison custody officer**
- This offence is created by section 90(1) of the [Criminal Justice Act 1991](/source/Criminal_Justice_Act_1991) (c. 53).

**Assault on a secure training centre custody officer**
- This offence is created by section 13(1) of the [Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994](/source/Criminal_Justice_and_Public_Order_Act_1994) (c. 33).

**Assault on officer saving wreck**
- This offence is created by section 37 of the [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100).

**Assaulting an officer of the court**
- This offence is created by section 14(1)(b) of the [County Courts Act 1984](/source/County_Courts_Act_1984) (c. 28).

**Cruelty to persons under sixteen**
- This offence is created by section 1(1) of the [Children and Young Persons Act 1933](/source/Children_and_Young_Persons_Act_1933) ([23 & 24 Geo. 5](/source/23_%26_24_Geo._5). c. 12) and applies to a person who has responsibility for the child. In England (but not Wales since 2022), common law provides a defence of "reasonable punishment" to battery (i.e. assaults involving touching); the [Children Act 2004](/source/Children_Act_2004) (c. 31) limits the defence to exclude, among other offences, cruelty under the 1933 act, but not battery, which implies that [smacking](/source/Spanking) is not always to be considered cruelty.

**Sexual assault**
- The offence of [sexual assault](/source/Sexual_assault#England_and_Wales) is created by section 3 of the [Sexual Offences Act 2003](/source/Sexual_Offences_Act_2003) (c. 42). It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent.

**Assault by penetration**
- This offence is defined by section 2 of the [Sexual Offences Act 2003](/source/Sexual_Offences_Act_2003) (c. 42). Whereas [rape](/source/Rape) consists only of penetration with the perpetrator's penis, assault by penetration can be committed with anything, though unlike rape it excludes penetration of the mouth. It carries the same maximum sentence of life imprisonment.

**Assault on an emergency worker**
- The [Assaults on Emergency Workers (Offences) Act 2018](/source/Assaults_on_Emergency_Workers_(Offences)_Act_2018) (c. 23) makes common assault an either way offence (section 1) when committed against an emergency worker (defined in section 3), with a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment if tried on indictment. The act did not repeal any enactments, so the existing offence of assault on a constable is still available, but that offence cannot be tried on indictment and is therefore limited to six months.

#### Scotland

In [Scots law](/source/Scots_law), assault is defined as an "attack upon the person of another".[62] There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a *physical* attack on another's person, as demonstrated in *Atkinson v. [HM Advocate](/source/Lord_Advocate)*[63] wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter while wearing a [ski mask](/source/Ski_mask). The court said:

[A]n assault may be constituted by threatening gestures sufficient to produce alarm

— *Atkinson v. HM Advocate* (1987)

Scots law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or *[Hamesucken](/source/Stouthrief)* (to assault a person in their own home). The *[mens rea](/source/Mens_rea)* for assault is simply "evil intent",[64] although this has been held to mean no more than that assault "cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently" as upheld in *[Lord Advocate's Reference](/source/Lord_Advocate's_Reference) No 2 of 1992* where it was found that a "hold-up" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence.

It is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of their duty, under section 90 of the [Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012](/source/Police_and_Fire_Reform_(Scotland)_Act_2012) (asp 8) (previously section 41 of the [Police (Scotland) Act 1967](/source/Police_(Scotland)_Act_1967) (c. 77)) which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of their duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of their duty.

#### Northern Ireland

Several offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100) creates the offences of:

- Common assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 42;

- Aggravated assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 43

- Common assault: under section 47

- Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: under section 47

The [Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Justice_(Miscellaneous_Provisions)_Act_(Northern_Ireland)_1968&action=edit&redlink=1) (c. 28 (N.I.)) creates the offences of:

- Assault with intent to resist arrest: under section 7(1)(b); this offence was formerly created by section 38 of the [Offences against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_against_the_Person_Act_1861) ([24 & 25 Vict.](/source/24_%26_25_Vict.) c. 100).

That act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under section 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the [Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Police_(Northern_Ireland)_Act_1998&action=edit&redlink=1) (c. 32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.

### United States

Felony Sentences in State Courts, study by the United States Department of Justice

In the United States,[*[where?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names))*] assault may be defined as an attempt to commit a [battery](/source/Battery_(crime)). However, the crime of assault can encompass acts in which no battery is intended, but the defendant's act nonetheless creates reasonable fear in others that a battery will occur.

Four elements were required at [common law](/source/Common_law):[65]

- The apparent, present ability to carry out;

- An unlawful attempt;

- To commit a violent injury;

- Upon another.

As the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states.

The crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be a natural person. Thus, unless the attack is directed by a person, an animal attack does not constitute an assault. However, under limited circumstances the [Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004](/source/Unborn_Victims_of_Violence_Act) treats a [fetus](/source/Fetus) as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes.[66][67]

Possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof that may be raised in response to an assault charge include:

- Lack of intent: A defendant could argue that since they were drunk, they could not form the [specific intent](/source/Specific_intent) to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail, however, since only involuntary [intoxication](/source/Intoxication_defense) is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions.

- Mutual consent: A defendant could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior. For example, boxers who are fighting in an organized boxing match and do not significantly deviate from the rules of the sport cannot be charged with assault.

#### State laws

Laws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own criminal laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as [battery](/source/Battery_(crime)), [menacing](/source/Menacing), [intimidation](/source/Intimidation), [reckless endangerment](/source/Reckless_endangerment), etc. in another state. Assault is often subdivided into two categories, simple assault and aggravated assault.

- Simple assault involves an intentional act that causes another person to be in reasonable fear of an imminent battery. Simple assault may also involve an attempt to cause harm to another person, where that attempt does not succeed. Simple assault is typically classified as a [misdemeanor](/source/Misdemeanor) offense, unless the victim is a member of a protected class, such as being a law enforcement officer.[68] Even as a misdemeanor, an assault conviction may still result in incarceration and in a criminal record.

- Aggravated assault involves more serious actions, such as an assault that is committed with the intent to cause a serious bodily injury, or an assault that is committed with a deadly weapon such as a firearm. Aggravated assault is typically classified as a [felony](/source/Felony) offense.

Modern American statutes may define assault as including:

- an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another

- [negligently](/source/Negligently) causing bodily injury to another with a dangerous weapon (assault with a deadly weapon).[69]

- causing bodily harm by reckless operation of a [motor vehicle](/source/Motor_vehicle) (vehicular assault).[70]

- threatening another in a menacing manner.[71]

- knowingly causing physical contact with another person knowing the other person will regard the contact as offensive or provocative[72]

- causing stupor, unconsciousness or physical injury by intentionally administering a drug or controlled substance without consent[73]

- purposely or knowingly causing reasonable apprehension of bodily injury in another[74]

- any act which is intended to place another in fear of immediate physical contact which will be painful, injurious, insulting, or offensive, coupled with the apparent ability to execute the act.[75]

In some states, [consent](/source/Consent_(criminal_law)) is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense to an assault charge such that an assault charge is prosecuted as a less significant offense such as a *petty misdemeanor*.

States vary on whether it is possible to commit an "attempted assault" since it can be considered a double [inchoate offense](/source/Inchoate_offense).

#### Kansas

In [Kansas](/source/Kansas) the law on assault states:[76]

Assault is intentionally placing another person in reasonable apprehension of immediate bodily harm.

#### New York

In [New York State](/source/New_York_State), assault (as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120)[77] requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery; there is no crime of battery in New York. However, in New York if a person threatens another person with imminent injury without engaging in physical contact, that is called "menacing". A person who engages in that behavior is guilty of aggravated harassment in the second degree (a [Class A misdemeanor](/source/Misdemeanor); punishable with up to one year [incarceration](/source/Incarceration), [probation](/source/Probation) for an extended time, and a permanent [criminal record](/source/Criminal_record)) when they threaten to cause physical harm to another person, and guilty of aggravated harassment in the first degree (a [Class E felony](/source/Class_E_felony)) if they have a previous conviction for the same offense.[78][79][80][81] New York also has specific laws against [hazing](/source/Hazing), when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization.

#### North Dakota

[North Dakota](/source/North_Dakota) law states:[82]

Simple assault.

1. A person is guilty of an offense if that person: 1. Willfully causes bodily injury to another human being; or 1. Negligently causes bodily injury to another human being by means of a firearm, destructive device, or other weapon, the use of which against a human being is likely to cause death or serious bodily injury.

#### Pennsylvania

In Pennsylvania, an offender can be charged with **simple assault** if they:

- injure someone else recklessly, knowingly, or purposefully

- accidentally injure someone with a firearm or weapon

- cause a needle-stick to an officer or correctional employee during a search or arrest

- threaten or intimidate someone causing fear of imminent serious bodily injury

A person convicted of simple assault can be ordered to up to two years in prison as a second-degree misdemeanor.[83]

An offender can be charged with **aggravated assault** if the offender:

- demonstrates extreme indifference to the victim's life

- injures or threatens to injure a law enforcement officer, correctional officer, firefighter, police officer, or teacher on duty, or for incapacitating any of these individuals

A person convicted of aggravated assault can face up to 10 years in prison as a second-degree felony. However, if the crime is perpetrated against a firefighter or police officer, the offender may face first-degree felony charges carrying a penalty of up to 20 years in prison.[83]

#### Tennessee

In [Tennessee](/source/Tennessee) assault is defined as follows:[84]

39-13-101. Assault.

- (a) A person commits assault who:

- (1) Intentionally, knowingly or recklessly causes bodily injury to another;

- (2) Intentionally or knowingly causes another to reasonably fear imminent bodily injury; or

- (3) Intentionally or knowingly causes physical contact with another and a reasonable person would regard the contact as extremely offensive or provocative.

## See also

- [Crime statistics](/source/Crime_statistics)

- [Domestic violence](/source/Domestic_violence)

- [Gay bashing](/source/Gay_bashing)

- [Hate crime](/source/Hate_crime)

- [Mayhem](/source/Mayhem_(crime))

- [Offences Against the Person Act 1861](/source/Offences_Against_the_Person_Act_1861)

## Citations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Erickson, William H. (1967). "What Constitutes an Assault". *Cleveland State Law Review*. **16**: 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Malamuth, Steven J. (1 January 1973). "A Final Assault on Attempted Assaults". *Santa Clara Law Review*. **14** (1): 83.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Beyond Rape: An Essay on the Difference between the Presence of Force and the Absence of Consent"](https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/clr92&div=58&g_sent=1&casa_token=). *heinonline.org*. Retrieved 18 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Garfield, Leslie Yalof (2009). ["The Case for a Criminal Law Theory of Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress"](https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/crimlbrf5&id=33&div=&collection=). *Criminal Law Brief*. **5**: 33.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** FELSON, RICHARD B.; STEADMAN, HENRY J. (February 1983). ["Situational Factors in Disputes Leading to Criminal Violence"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00251.x). *Criminology*. **21** (1): 59–74. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1745-9125.1983.tb00251.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-9125.1983.tb00251.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0011-1384](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-1384).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Meloy, J. Reid; Hoffmann, Jens (2021). [*International Handbook of Threat Assessment*](https://books.google.com/books?id=szkqEAAAQBAJ&dq=Assault+can+be+committed+with+or+without+a+weapon+and+can+range+from+physical+violence+to+threats+of+violence&pg=PA22). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-094016-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-094016-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Reitz, Kevin R. (February 1993). ["Sentencing Facts: Travesties of Real-Offense Sentencing"](https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1229007). *Stanford Law Review*. **45** (3): 523–573. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1229007](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1229007). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0038-9765](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-9765). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1229007](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229007).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Tyler, Tom R.; Weber, Renee (1982). ["Support for the Death Penalty; Instrumental Response to Crime, or Symbolic Attitude?"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3053531). *Law & Society Review*. **17** (1): 21–45. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3053531](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3053531). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0023-9216](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0023-9216). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3053531](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3053531).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Spohn, Cassia; Beichner, Dawn; Davis-Frenzel, Erika (May 2001). ["Prosecutorial Justifications for Sexual Assault Case Rejection: Guarding the "Gateway to Justice""](https://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206). *Social Problems*. **48** (2): 206–235. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/sp.2001.48.2.206](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fsp.2001.48.2.206). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0037-7791](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-7791).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["14. Criminal Law (Ireland)"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2666-075x_ldio_com_16irl14). *Annotated Legal Documents on Islam in Europe Online*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/2666-075x_ldio_com_16irl14](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2666-075x_ldio_com_16irl14). Retrieved 23 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Walby, Sylvia; Allen, Jonathan (2004). ["Domestic Violence, Sexual Assault And Stalking: Findings from The British Crime Survey"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e649462007-001). *PsycEXTRA Dataset*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/e649462007-001](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fe649462007-001). Retrieved 23 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Britt, Chester L.; Buzawa, Eve S.; Buzawa, Carl G. (July 1991). ["Domestic Violence: The Criminal Justice Response"](https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2071841). *Contemporary Sociology*. **20** (4): 597. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2071841](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2071841). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0094-3061](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-3061). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2071841](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2071841).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Dripps, Donald A. (November 1992). ["Beyond Rape: An Essay on the Difference between the Presence of Force and the Absence of Consent"](https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1123045). *Columbia Law Review*. **92** (7): 1780–1809. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1123045](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1123045). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0010-1958](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0010-1958). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1123045](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1123045).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["Criminal Violence In Sport"](https://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781509955640.ch-005), *Modern Sports Law*, Bloomsbury, pp. 173–217, 2010, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5040/9781509955640.ch-005](https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781509955640.ch-005), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-8411-3685-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8411-3685-1), retrieved 23 March 2023{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Dripps, Donald A. mname (2018). ["Why Rape Should Be a Federal Crime"](https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3095741). *SSRN Electronic Journal*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2139/ssrn.3095741](https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3095741). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1556-5068](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** O'Neal, Edgar C. (1994). ["Human aggression, second edition, edited by Robert A. Baron and Deborah R. Richardson. New York, Plenum, 1994, xx + 419 pp"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:6%3C461::aid-ab2480200606%3E3.0.co;2-o). *Aggressive Behavior*. **20** (6): 461–463. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/1098-2337(1994)20:6<461::aid-ab2480200606>3.0.co;2-o](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1098-2337%281994%2920%3A6%3C461%3A%3Aaid-ab2480200606%3E3.0.co%3B2-o). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0096-140X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-140X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Bidwell, Lee D. Millar; Barnett, Ola W.; Miller-Perrin, Cindy L.; Perrin, Robin (April 1997). ["Family Violence across the Lifespan: An Introduction"](https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1318672). *Teaching Sociology*. **25** (2): 198. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1318672](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1318672). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0092-055X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0092-055X). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1318672](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1318672).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** An act is volitional if it is purposeful and deliberate as opposed to reflexive or involuntary (see Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams, *Textbook of Criminal Law* (London, Sweet & Maxwell 2012) at p 901). For example. a person who has restless leg syndrome kicks his wife while asleep. The contact, although, harmful, would not constitute battery because the act was not willful.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** A criminal battery may also be committed if the harmful or offensive contact is due to the criminal negligence of the defendant.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tjaden_2000_20-0)** Tjaden, Patricia; Thoennes, Nancy (2000). ["Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e300342003-001). *PsycEXTRA Dataset*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1037/e300342003-001](https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fe300342003-001). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2027/mdp.39015042645401](https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015042645401). Retrieved 23 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Gruszczyńska, Beata Z. (31 October 2013), ["Women Victimization Risk of Violence in Poland"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01839-3_9), *Organized Crime, Corruption and Crime Prevention*, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 69–75, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-319-01839-3_9](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-01839-3_9), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-01838-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-01838-6), retrieved 23 March 2023{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Gurr, Ted Robert (January 1981). ["Historical Trends in Violent Crime: A Critical Review of the Evidence"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1086/449082). *Crime and Justice*. **3**: 295–353. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/449082](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F449082). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0192-3234](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0192-3234). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144948441](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144948441).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Markowitz, Sara (March 2005). ["Alcohol, Drugs and Violent Crime"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.irle.2005.05.003). *International Review of Law and Economics*. **25** (1): 20–44. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.irle.2005.05.003](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.irle.2005.05.003). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0144-8188](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0144-8188).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** DeLisi, Matt (2003). ["Criminal careers behind bars"](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbsl.531). *Behavioral Sciences & the Law*. **21** (5): 653–669. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/bsl.531](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbsl.531). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0735-3936](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0735-3936). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [14502694](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14502694).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** ["Crime in the United States 2010: Aggravated Assault"](https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.-2010/violent-crime/aggravatedassaultmain). *[Federal Bureau of Investigation](/source/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Baker_26-0)** Baker, Dennis; William, Glanville. "9". *Textbook of Criminal Law*. London, Sweet & Maxwell.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Bailey, Frankie Y. (September 1999). ["Book Review: Street-Level Leadership: Discretion and Legitimacy in Front-Line Public Service"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073401689902400229). *Criminal Justice Review*. **24** (2): 218–220. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/073401689902400229](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F073401689902400229). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0734-0168](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0734-0168). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144571165](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144571165).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Sherman, Lawrence W.; Rogan, Dennis P. (December 1995). ["Effects of gun seizures on gun violence: "Hot spots" patrol in Kansas city"](https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418829500096241). *Justice Quarterly*. **12** (4): 673–693. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/07418829500096241](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07418829500096241). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0741-8825](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0741-8825).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Sherman, Lawrence W.; Berk, Richard A. (April 1984). ["The Specific Deterrent Effects of Arrest for Domestic Assault"](https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2095575). *American Sociological Review*. **49** (2): 261–272. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2095575](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2095575). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0003-1224](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-1224). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2095575](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2095575). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [6742629](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6742629).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Chambliss, William J. (15 May 2018). [*Power, Politics, and Crime*](https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429498084). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780429498084](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780429498084). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780429498084](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780429498084).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** [Nemeth, Charles P.](/source/Charles_P._Nemeth) (2012). *Criminal law* (2nd ed.). Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis. pp. 218–221. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4398-9787-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-9787-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** (RvG ref 6. 1980): see ["R v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071016125514/http://lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non%20Fatal%20Assaults/Consent%20R%20v%20Brown.htm). *LawTeacher*. Archived from [the original](http://lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non+Fatal+Assaults/Consent+R+v+Brown.htm) on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 17 September 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** ["*Smart v. H. M. Advocate*, \[1975\] ScotHC HCJ_1, 1975 SLT 65, 1975 JC 30"](http://www.bailii.org/scot/cases/ScotHC/1975/1975_JC_30.html). *bailii.org*. Retrieved 23 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** ["Children Act 2004: Section 58"](https://legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2004/31/section/58/), *[legislation.gov.uk](/source/Legislation.gov.uk)*, [The National Archives](/source/The_National_Archives_(United_Kingdom)), 2004 c. 31 (s. 58)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament. *[Children (Abolition of Defence of Reasonable Punishment) (Wales) Act 2020](https://legislation.gov.uk/anaw/2020/3)* as amended (see also [enacted form](https://legislation.gov.uk/anaw/2020/3/enacted)), from [legislation.gov.uk](/source/Legislation.gov.uk). Section 1. This section came into force two years after the Act received royal assent (see section 5(1)).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-f967_36-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-f967_36-1) ["United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, crime-violent-offences, Serious assaults"](https://dataunodc.un.org/crime-violent-offences). Retrieved 13 August 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-s523_37-0)** ["United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, dp-sdg-16-1-3, Prevalence rate of physical assault (%)"](https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-sdg-16-1-3). *dataUNODC*. Retrieved 13 August 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** *Darby v DPP* [\[2004\] NSWCA 431](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWCA/2004/431.html), (2004) 61 [NSWLR](/source/NSW_Law_Reports) 558, [Court of Appeal](/source/New_South_Wales_Court_of_Appeal) (NSW, Australia).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["Assault Laws in Australia: Definitions and Defences"](http://www.findlaw.com.au/articles/4274/assault-laws-in-australia-definitions-and-defences.aspx). *findlaw.com.au*. Retrieved 12 March 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** *[Crimes Act 1900](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/)* (NSW).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 27](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s27.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 33](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s33.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 33B](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s33b.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 59](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s59.html)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AustLII_45-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AustLII_45-1) *R v McIntyre* [\[2009\] NSWCCA 305](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWCCA/2009/305.html), [Court of Criminal Appeal](/source/New_South_Wales_Court_of_Criminal_Appeal) (NSW, Australia).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** *Li v R* [\[2005\] NSWCCA 442](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWCCA/2005/442.html), [Court of Criminal Appeal](/source/New_South_Wales_Court_of_Criminal_Appeal) (NSW, Australia).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** *R v Donovan* [1934] 2 [KB](/source/Kings_Bench_Law_Reports) 498; [(1934) 5 New Zealand Police Law Reports 247](http://www.austlii.edu.au/nz/cases/NZPoliceLawRp/1934/8.pdf).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 35](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s35.html)(4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 35](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s35.html)(2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 4](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s4.html).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 25a](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s25a.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** *Crimes Act 1900* (NSW) [s 25b](https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s25b.html)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-1985-46_53-8) ["CanLII – Criminal Code, RSC 1985, c C-46"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150430001252/http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html). *Canlii*. Archived from [the original](http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/laws/stat/rsc-1985-c-c-46/latest/rsc-1985-c-c-46.html) on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** MacDowell (1976) p. 25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** [*Indian Penal Code Chapter XVI*](http://devgan.in/ipc/chapter_16.php#s351)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** ["Vakil No1.com – "Indian Penal Code""](https://web.archive.org/web/20110205035155/http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/indianpenalcode/S351.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/indianpenalcode/S351.htm) on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** ["Criminal Code Act-PartV"](https://web.archive.org/web/20021124135626/http://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm#Chapter%2029) on 24 November 2002. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** ["Criminal Code Act-PartV"](https://web.archive.org/web/20021124135626/http://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm#Chapter%2025). Archived from [the original](http://www.nigeria-law.org/Criminal%20Code%20Act-PartV.htm#Chapter%2025) on 24 November 2002. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** [Criminal Code \[31 MIRC Ch 1\]](http://www3.paclii.org/mh/legis/consol_act/cc94/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090413025838/http://www.paclii.org/mh/legis/consol_act/cc94/) 13 April 2009 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Milton, John (1996). *South African Criminal Law and Procedure: Common-law crimes* (3rd ed.). Cape Town: Juta & Co. pp. 405–437. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7021-3773-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7021-3773-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Section 453A was inserted by [section 81(2)](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2007/27/section/81) of the [Serious Crime Act 2007](/source/Serious_Crime_Act_2007) and amended by [paragraph 94](http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2009/26/schedule/7/paragraph/94) of Schedule 7 to the [Policing and Crime Act 2009](/source/Policing_and_Crime_Act_2009).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** MacDonald, *Criminal Law* (5th edn, 1948) p.155

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** 1987 SCCR 534

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** MacDonald, op. cit, p.155; *Smart v. HM Advocate* 1975 JC 30

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Atoki, Morayo (1995). "Assault and S 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861". *The Journal of Criminal Law*. **59** (3): 301. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/002201839505900307](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002201839505900307). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [148828619](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:148828619).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** ["Legislative Analysis of The Unborn Victims Of Violence Act"](https://www.aclu.org/other/legislative-analysis-unborn-victims-violence-act). *ACLU*. American Civil Liberties Union. 18 February 2000. Retrieved 5 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** ["State Laws on Fetal Homicide and Penalty-enhancement for Crimes Against Pregnant Women"](https://www.ncsl.org/research/health/fetal-homicide-state-laws.aspx). *NCSL*. National Conference of State Legislatures. 1 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** See, e.g., ["MCL 750.81d, Assaulting, battering, resisting, obstructing, opposing person performing duty; felony; penalty; other violations; consecutive terms; definitions"](http://www.legislature.mi.gov/mileg.aspx?page=GetObject&objectname=mcl-750-81d). *Michigan Legislature*. State of Michigan. Retrieved 17 January 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** ["South Dakota Legislature"](http://legis.state.sd.us/statutes/DisplayStatute.aspx?Type=Statute&Statute=22-18-1). Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** ["RCW 46.61.522: Vehicular assault — Penalty"](http://apps.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite=46.61.522). Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** ["§ 28-310 — Assault in the third degree; penalty. :: Chapter 28 — Crimes and Punishments: 2006 Nebraska Revised Statutes :: Nebraska Revised Statutes: US Codes and Statutes :: US Law :: Justia"](http://law.justia.com/codes/nebraska/2006/s28index/s2803010000.html). *Justia Law*. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** ["Section 565-070 Until December 31, 2016—Assault in the"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150518094908/http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C500-599/5650000070.HTM). Archived from [the original](http://www.moga.mo.gov/statutes/C500-599/5650000070.HTM) on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** ["Sec. 53a-60. Assault in the second degree: Class D felony. :: Chapter 952 — Penal Code: Offenses (contains Secs. 53a-24 to 53a-323) :: Title 53a — Penal Code (contains Chapters 950 to 952) :: 2005 Connecticut Code :: Connecticut Code: US Codes and Statutes: US Law: Justia"](http://law.justia.com/codes/connecticut/2005/title53a/sec53a-60.html). *Justia Law*. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** ["MONT CODE ANN § 45-5-201 : Montana Code – Section 45-5-201: Assault"](http://codes.lp.findlaw.com/mtcode/45/5/2/45-5-201). *Findlaw*. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** ["Iowa Code 708"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160314103140/https://coolice.legis.iowa.gov/cool-ice/default.asp?category=billinfo&service=iowacode&ga=83&input=708#708.1). Archived from [the original](https://coolice.legis.iowa.gov/cool-ice/default.asp?category=billinfo&service=iowacode&ga=83&input=708#708.1) on 14 March 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** ["KS Statutes: Ch 21 Article 34: Crimes Against Persons"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071114225316/http://kansasstatutes.lesterama.org/Chapter_21/Article_34/). 14 November 2007. Archived from the original on 14 November 2007. Retrieved 18 September 2016.{{[cite web](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web)}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** ["Article 120 – NY Penal Law – Assault Menacing Stalking – Law"](https://www.nysenate.gov/legislation/laws/PEN/120.05). New York State Senate. Retrieved 15 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** ["New York Consolidated Laws, Penal Law – PEN § 240.30 – FindLaw"](https://codes.findlaw.com/ny/penal-law/pen-sect-240-30.html). *findlaw.com*. Retrieved 23 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** ["New York Harassment Laws – FindLaw"](https://statelaws.findlaw.com/new-york-law/new-york-harassment-laws.html). *findlaw.com*. Retrieved 23 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** ["Opinion – When Is a Threat a Criminal Act?"](https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/06/opinion/when-is-a-threat-a-criminal-act.html). *The New York Times*. 5 December 2014. Archived from [the original](https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/06/opinion/when-is-a-threat-a-criminal-act.html) on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 23 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** ["Second Degree Aggravated Harassment"](https://www.new-york-lawyers.org/second-degree-aggravated-harassment.html). *The Law Office of Crotty & Saland*. Retrieved 23 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** ["North Dakota Century Code t12.1c17"](http://www.legis.nd.gov/cencode/t12-1c17.pdf?20130902151232) (PDF).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_83-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_83-1) ["Chapter 27. - Title 18 - CRIMES AND OFFENSES"](https://www.legis.state.pa.us/WU01/LI/LI/CT/HTM/18/00.027..HTM). *www.legis.state.pa.us*. Retrieved 12 April 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** ["LexisNexis® Custom Solution: Tennessee Code Research Tool"](http://www.lexisnexis.com/hottopics/tncode/). Retrieved 10 May 2015.

## General and cited references

- Baker, Dennis; William, Glanville. "Chapter 9". *Textbook of Criminal Law*. London, Sweet & Maxwell.[*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include)*]

## External links

Look up ***[assault](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/assault)*** or ***[beat up](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/beat_up)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [A guide to the non fatal offences against the person](https://web.archive.org/web/20090201151414/http://criminallawonline.com/artassaults.php)

v t e Types of crime Note: Crimes vary by jurisdiction. Not all types are listed here. Classes Infraction Misdemeanor Felony Summary Indictable Hybrid Corruption Law portal Against the person Section 'Offense against the person' not found Against property Section 'Crimes against property' not found Against the public Section 'Crimes against the public' not found Against the state Section 'Crimes against the state' not found Against justice Section 'Crimes against justice' not found Against animals Section 'Crimes against animals' not found Sexual offenses Section 'Sexual offenses' not found Inchoate offenses Attempt Conspiracy Incitement Solicitation WikiSource Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikinews

Authority control databases International GND National Latvia

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Assault](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.