# Alchon Huns

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370–670 CE nomadic people who invaded India

Not to be confused with [Huns](/source/Huns).

Alchon Huns 370–670 Portrait of Alchon king Khingila (c. 450 CE), and the bull/lunar tamga of the Alchon (known as Tamgha S1),[1] as visible on Alchon coinage. Sanjeli Eran Gwalior Sondani Choti Sadri Kura Kausambi Rīsthal ALCHON HUNS HEPHTHALITES NEZAK HUNS SASA- NIANS RAIS GUPTAS VAKATAKAS ZHANGZHUNG KINGDOM Northern Wei TOCHARIANS WESTERN GANGAS KADAMBAS Find spots of epigraphic inscriptions (red dots) indicating local control by the Alchon Huns in India between 500-530 CE,[2] with neighbouring polities,[3] and territorial extent of the Alchon Huns (brown).[4] Capital Kapisa Udabhanda[5] Sagala[6][7] Common languages Bactrian (written) Religion Hinduism Buddhism Zoroastrianism[8] Government Nomadic empire Historical era Late antiquity • Established 370 • Disestablished 670 Currency Drachm Preceded by Succeeded by Sassanian Empire Kidarites Gupta Empire Hephthalites Nezak Huns Turk Shahi Second Aulikara dynasty Karkota dynasty Maukhari dynasty Later Gupta dynasty Kalachuris of Tripuri Today part of Afghanistan Pakistan India

The **Alchon Huns**, ([Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_language): αλχον(ν)ο *Alkhon(n)o* or αλχαν(ν)ο *Alkhan(n)o*) also known as the **Alkhan**, **Alchono**, **Alxon**, **Alkhon**, **Alakhana**, and **Walxon**, were a nomadic people who established states in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia) and the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent) during the 4th and 6th centuries CE.[1] They were first mentioned as being located in [Paropamisus](/source/Paropamisadae), and later expanded south-east, into the [Punjab](/source/Punjab) and [Central India](/source/Central_India), going as far as [Eran](/source/Eran) and [Kausambi](/source/Kausambi). The Alchon invasion of the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent) eradicated the [Kidarite Huns](/source/Kidarites) who had preceded them by about a century, and contributed to the fall of the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire), in a sense bringing an end to [Classical India](/source/Classical_India).[9][5]

The invasion of India by the [Huna peoples](/source/Huna_people) follows invasions of the subcontinent in the preceding centuries by the Yavana ([Indo-Greeks](/source/Indo-Greeks)), the Saka ([Indo-Scythians](/source/Indo-Scythians)), the Pahlava ([Indo-Parthians](/source/Indo-Parthians)), and the Kushana ([Yuezhi](/source/Yuezhi)). The Alchon Empire was the second of four major Huna states established in Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent. The Alchon were preceded by the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) and succeeded by the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites) and [Nezak Huns](/source/Nezak_Huns) in [Bactria](/source/Bactria) and the [Hindu Kush](/source/Hindu_Kush) respectively. The names of the Alchon kings are known from their extensive coinage, Buddhist accounts, and a number of commemorative inscriptions throughout the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent).

The Alchons have long been considered a part or a sub-division of the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites), or as their eastern branch, but are now regarded as a separate entity.[1][10][11]

## Identity

See also: [Origin of the Huns](/source/Origin_of_the_Huns)

### Name

The etymology of "Alchon" is disputed. It is only attested on the script of their coins and seals, where it appears as *alkhon(n)o* or *alkhan(n)o* in Bactrian script or *lakhāna* in Sanskrit.[12] Frantz Grenet, pointing to the [Middle Persian](/source/Middle_Persian) apocalyptic book [Zand-i Wahman yasn](/source/Zand-i_Wahman_yasn), argued that a name attested there, *Karmīr Xyōn* ("red Chionites") could represent a translation of *Alkhonno*, with the first element, *al* being a Turkic word for red and the second element representing the ethnic name "Hun".[13] An older suggestion, by H. Humbach, also connects the second element to "Hun", but argues that *al-* comes from the ethnic name [Alan](/source/Alans).[14]

The word "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in [Greek](/source/Greek_script) ([Greco-Bactrian cursive script](/source/Bactrian_script)), on a coin of [Khingila](/source/Khingila).[15][14][16]

Hans Bakker argues that the second spelling *-khan-* makes it unlikely that the term contains the ethnic name "Hun", as the [Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_language) word for "Hun" is **uono* (plural *uonono*).[17] Likewise, Khodadad Rezakhani argues that the name Alkhana is attested for a ruler in Western [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir), meaning it was probably initially a personal name.[18] Bakker instead argues that the ethnic name has been used as a personal name.[19] Furthermore, the “Red Huns” theory requires that the Alchon spoke a Turkic language, which is highly disputed.[18] Agustí Alemanny similarly disputes Humbach's etymology as relying on insufficient evidence of an Alan-Hun ethnic group.[20]

Because the name "Alchon" is only attested on coins and seals, there is some debate about whether the Alchon were a separate entity from the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites).[21] To contemporaneous observers in India, the Alchon were one of the *[Hūṇa](/source/Huna_people)* peoples (or Hunas).[22][23] A seal from [Kausambi](/source/Kausambi) associated with [Toramana](/source/Toramana), bears the title *Hūnarāja* ("Huna King"),[24] although the authenticity of this seal is questionable.[25] Toramana is also described as a *Huna* ( *Hūṇā*) in the [Rīsthal inscription](/source/R%C4%ABsthal_inscription).[26][27][28]

The Hunas appear to have been the peoples known in contemporaneous Iranian sources as *Xwn*, *Xiyon* and similar names, which were later Romanised as [Xionites](/source/Xionites) or Chionites. The Hunas are often linked to the [Huns](/source/Huns) that invaded Europe from Central Asia during the same period. Consequently, the word Hun has three slightly different meanings, depending on the context in which it is used: 1) the Huns of Europe; 2) groups associated with the [Huna people](/source/Huna_people) who invaded northern India; 3) a vague term for Hun-like people. The Alchon have also been labelled "Huns", with essentially the second meaning, as well as elements of the third.[29][30]

### Visual appearance

**Left**: Portrait of Alchon king [Khingila](/source/Khingila), from his coinage (c. 450 CE). **Right**: [Elongated skull](/source/Elongated_skull) excavated in [Samarkand](/source/Samarkand) (dated 600-800 CE), [Afrasiab Museum of Samarkand](/source/Afrasiab_Museum_of_Samarkand)

The Alchons are generally recognised by their elongated skull, a result of [artificial skull deformation](/source/Artificial_skull_deformation), which may have represented their "corporate identity". The elongated skulls appear clearly in most of the portraits of rulers in the coinage of the Alkhon Huns, and most visibly on the coinage of [Khingila](/source/Khingila). These elongated skulls, which they obviously displayed with pride, distinguished them from other peoples, such as their predecessors the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites). On their coins, the spectacular skulls came to replace the [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian)-type crowns which had been current in the coinage of the region. This practice is also known among other peoples of the steppes, particularly the [Huns](/source/Huns), and as far as Europe, where it was introduced by the Huns themselves.[31][32]

In another ethnic custom, the Alchons were represented beardless, often wearing a [moustache](/source/Moustache), in clear contrast with the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire) prototype which was generally bearded.[33]

The emblematic look of the Alchons seems to have become rather fashionable in the area, as shown by the depiction of the Iranian hero [Rostam](/source/Rostam), mythical king of [Zabulistan](/source/Zabulistan), with an elongated skull in [his 7th century CE mural](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rostam,_Iranian_hero,_mythical_king_of_Zabulistan._Panjikent,_7th_century_CE.jpg) at [Panjikent](/source/Panjikent).[34][35][36]

### Symbolism

Another way for the Alchon Huns to affirm their identity and to differentiate themselves from their predecessors the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites), was the use of a specific symbol, or *[tamgha](/source/Tamgha)*, which regularly appears on their coinage and seals.[31]

## History

### Invasion of Bactria (370 CE)

[BYZANTINE](/source/Byzantine_Empire)
[EMPIRE](/source/Byzantine_Empire)

ALKHON
HUNS

[SASANIAN](/source/Sasanian_Empire)
[EMPIRE](/source/Sasanian_Empire)

[KIDARITES](/source/Kidarites)

[GUPTA](/source/Gupta_Empire)
[EMPIRE](/source/Gupta_Empire)

The Alkhons are initially recorded in the area of [Bactria](/source/Bactria) circa 370 CE, from where they confronted the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire) to the west and the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) to the southeast.

Emergence of the Alchon tamgha

An early Alchon coin based on the design of [Sasanian coinage](/source/Sasanian_coinage), with bust imitating Sasanian king [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) (r.309 to 379 CE), only adding the Alchon [Tamgha](/source/Tamgha) symbol  and "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in [Bactrian script](/source/Bactrian_script) on the [obverse](/source/Obverse). Dated 400-440 CE.[37][38][39]

During the reign of [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II), the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire) and the [Kushano-Sasanians](/source/Kushano-Sasanians) gradually lost the control of [Bactria](/source/Bactria) to these invaders from [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), first the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) from around 335 CE, then the Alchon Huns from around 370 CE, who would follow up with the invasion of [India](/source/India) a century later, and lastly the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites) from around 450 CE.[40]

Early confrontations between the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire) of [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) with the nomadic hordes from Central Asia called the "[Chionites](/source/Chionites)" were described by [Ammianus Marcellinus](/source/Ammianus_Marcellinus): he reports that in 356 CE, Shapur II was taking his winter quarters on his eastern borders, "repelling the hostilities of the bordering tribes" of the [Chionites](/source/Chionites) and the Euseni ("Euseni" is usually amended to "Cuseni", meaning the [Kushans](/source/Kushans)),[41][42] finally making a treaty of alliance with the Chionites and the Gelani, "the most warlike and indefatigable of all tribes", in 358 CE.[43] After concluding this alliance, the [Chionites](/source/Chionites) (probably of the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) tribe)[44] under their King [Grumbates](/source/Grumbates) accompanied Shapur II in the war against the Romans, especially at the [siege of Amida](/source/Siege_of_Amida_(359)) in 359 CE. Victories of the Xionites during their campaigns in the Eastern [Caspian](/source/Caspians) lands were also witnessed and described by [Ammianus Marcellinus](/source/Ammianus_Marcellinus).[45]

The Alchon Huns occupied Bactria circa 370 CE, chasing the Kidarites in the direction of India, and started minting coins in the style of Shapur II but bearing their name "Alchono".[46][47]

### Invasion of Kabulistan (c.385 CE)

Around 380-385 CE, the Alchons emerged in [Kapisa](/source/Kapisa_(city)), taking over Kabulistan from the [Sassanian](/source/Sassanian) Persians, while at the same time the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) (Red Huns) ruled in [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara).[48] The Alchons are known to have reused the mint and the coin dies of [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) south of the Hindu Kush, again simply adding their name "Alchono" to Sasanian coinage.[49] The Alchon Huns are sometimes said to have taken control of [Kabul](/source/Kabul) in 388.[48]

### Coinage

The Alchon Huns initially issued anonymous coins based on [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian) designs.[38] Several types of these coins are known, usually minted in [Bactria](/source/Bactria), using Sasanian coinage designs with busts imitating Sasanian kings [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) (r.309 to 379 CE) and [Shapur III](/source/Shapur_III) (r.383 to 388 CE), adding the Alchon [Tamgha](/source/Tamgha) and the name "Alchono" (αλχοννο) in [Bactrian script](/source/Bactrian_script) (a slight adaptation of the [Greek script](/source/Greek_script) which had been introduced in the region by the [Greco-Bactrians](/source/Greco-Bactrians) in the 3rd century BCE) on the obverse, and with attendants to a [fire altar](/source/Fire_altar), a standard Sasanian design, on the reverse.[50][51] It is thought the Alchons took over the Sasanian mints in Kabulistan after 385 CE, reusing dies of [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) and [Shapur III](/source/Shapur_III), to which they added the name "Alchono".[52]

### Gandhara (460 CE)

Portrait of an older King [Khingila](/source/Khingila), founder of the Alchon Huns, on one of his coins, c. 430 – 490 CE.

Around 430 King [Khingila](/source/Khingila), the most notable Alchon ruler, and the first one to be named and represented on his coins with the legend "χιγγιλο" (*Chiggilo*) in [Bactrian](/source/Bactria_(satrapy)), emerged and took control of the routes across the [Hindu Kush](/source/Hindu_Kush) from the Kidarites.[48][1] Coins of the Alchons rulers Khingila and [Mehama](/source/Mehama) were found at the Buddhist monastery of [Mes Aynak](/source/Mes_Aynak), southeast of [Kabul](/source/Kabul), confirming the Alchon presence in this area around 450-500 CE.[53] Khingila seems to have been a contemporary of the [Sassanian](/source/Sassanian) ruler [Bahram V](/source/Bahram_V).[1] As the Alchons took control, diplomatic missions were established in 457 with [China](/source/China).[54]: 162 Khingila, under the name *Shengil*, was called "King of India" in the [Shahnameh](/source/Shahnameh) of [Ferdowsi](/source/Ferdowsi).[11]

Alchon ruler [Mehama](/source/Mehama) (r.461-493) was elevated to the position of Governor for [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian) Emperor [Peroz I](/source/Peroz_I) (r. 459–484), and described himself as "King of the people of [Kadag](/source/Baghlan_Province) and governor of the famous and prosperous King of Kings Peroz" in [a 462-463 letter](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bactrian_language_letter_from_Meyam,_King_of_the_people_of_Kadag,_461-462_CE.jpg).[55] He allied with Peroz I in his victory over the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) in 466 CE, and may also have helped him take the throne against his brother [Hormizd III](/source/Hormizd_III). But he was later able to wrestle autonomy or even independence.[56]

Between 460 and 470 CE, the Alchons took over [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) and the [Punjab](/source/Punjab) which also had remained under the control of the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites), while the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) remained further east.[57][30] The Alkhon Huns may simply have filled the power vacuum created by the decline of the Kidarites, following their defeat in India against the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) of [Skandagupta](/source/Skandagupta) in 455 CE,[19] and their subsequent defeat in 467 CE against the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire) of [Peroz I](/source/Peroz_I), with [Hephthalite](/source/Hephthalite) and Alchon aid under [Mehama](/source/Mehama), which put an end to Kidarite rule in [Transoxiana](/source/Transoxiana) once and for all.[58]

The silver bowl in the [British Museum](/source/British_Museum)

Alchon horseman.[59]

The so-called "[Hephthalite bowl](/source/Hephthalite_bowl)" from [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara), features two [Kidarite](/source/Kidarite) hunters wearing characteristic crowns, and as well as two Alchon hunters (one of them shown here, with [skull deformation](/source/Skull_deformation)), suggesting a period of peaceful coexistence between the two entities.[59] [Swat District](/source/Swat_District), [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan), 460–479 CE. [British Museum](/source/British_Museum).[60][61]

The numismatic evidence as well as the so-called "Hephthalite bowl" from [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara), now in the [British Museum](/source/British_Museum), suggests a period of peaceful coexistence between the Kidarites and the Alchons, as it features two [Kidarite](/source/Kidarite) noble hunters wearing their characteristic crowns, together with two Alchon hunters and one of the Alchons inside a medallion.[59] At one point, the Kidarites withdrew from Gandhara, and the Alchons took over their mints from the time of [Khingila](/source/Khingila).[59]

The Alchons apparently undertook the mass destruction of Buddhist monasteries and [stupas](/source/Stupas) at [Taxila](/source/Taxila), a high center of learning, which never recovered from the destruction.[62] Virtually all of the Alchon coins found in the area of [Taxila](/source/Taxila) were found in the ruins of burned down monasteries, where apparently some of the invaders died alongside local defenders during the wave of destructions.[62] It is thought that the [Kanishka stupa](/source/Kanishka_stupa), one of the most famous and tallest buildings in antiquity, was destroyed by them during their invasion of the area in the 460s CE. The [Mankiala stupa](/source/Mankiala_stupa) was also vandalised during their invasions.[63]

The rest of the 5th century marks a period of territorial expansion and eponymous kings, several of which appear to have overlapped and ruled jointly.[64][Note 1] The Alchon Huns invaded parts of northwestern India from the second half of the 5th century.[65] According to the [Bhitari pillar inscription](/source/Bhitari_pillar_inscription_of_Skandagupta), the Gupta ruler [Skandagupta](/source/Skandagupta) already confronted and defeated an unnamed Huna ruler c. 456-457 CE.[65]

### Sindh

Uncertain Hunnic chieftain. [Sindh](/source/Sindh). 5th century.

Main article: [Sasanian coinage of Sindh](/source/Sasanian_coinage_of_Sindh)

From circa 480 CE, there are also suggestion of Hunnic occupation of [Sindh](/source/Sindh), between [Multan](/source/Multan) and the mouth of the [Indus River](/source/Indus_River), as the local [Sasanian coinage of Sindh](/source/Sasanian_coinage_of_Sindh) starts to incorporate sun symbols or a Hunnic [tamgha](/source/Tamgha) to the design.[66] These little-known coins are usually described as the result of the invasions of the "[Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites)".[66] The quality of the coins also becomes very much degraded by that time, and the actual gold content becomes quite low compared to the previous Sasanian-style coinage.[67]

#### Contributions

The Hūṇas were precisely ruling the area of [Malwa](/source/Malwa), at the doorstep of the [Western Deccan](/source/Western_Deccan), at the time the famous [Ajanta Caves](/source/Ajanta_Caves) were made by ruler [Harisena](/source/Harisena) of the [Vakataka](/source/Vakataka) Empire.[68][69] Through their control of vast areas of northwestern India, the Huns may actually have acted as a cultural bridge between the area of [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) and the Western Deccan, at the time when the Ajanta or [Pitalkhora caves](/source/Pitalkhora) were being decorated with designs of Gandharan inspiration, such as Buddhas dressed in robes with abundant folds.[70]

### First Hunnic War: Central India

Kausambi

The monastery of Ghoshitarama in [Kausambi](/source/Kausambi) was probably destroyed by the Alchon Huns under Toramana.[24]

"*Hūna Rāja*" Toramana seal impression, Kausambi[71]

In the [First Hunnic War](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Hunnic_War&action=edit&redlink=1) (496–515),[72] the Alchon reached their maximum territorial extent, with King [Toramana](/source/Toramana) pushing deep into Indian territory, reaching [Gujarat](/source/Gujarat) and [Madhya Pradesh](/source/Madhya_Pradesh) in [Central India](/source/Central_India), and ultimately contributing to the downfall of the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire).[54]: 162 To the south, the [Sanjeli inscriptions](/source/Sanjeli_inscriptions) indicate that Toramana penetrated at least as far as northern [Gujarat](/source/Gujarat), and possibly to the port of [Bharukaccha](/source/Bharukaccha).[73] To the east, far into [Central India](/source/Central_India), the city of [Kausambi](/source/Kausambi), where seals with Toramana's name were found, was probably sacked by the Alkhons in 497–500, before they moved to occupy [Malwa](/source/Malwa).[72][74][75]: 70[76] In particular, it is thought that the monastery of Ghoshitarama in Kausambi was destroyed by Toramana, as several of his seals were found there, one of them bearing the name *Toramana* impressed over the official seal of the monastery, and the other bearing the title *Hūnarāja* ("King of the Huns"), together with debris and arrowheads.[24] Another seal, this time by Mihirakula, is reported from Kausambi.[24] These territories may have been taken from Gupta Emperor [Budhagupta](/source/Budhagupta).[75]: 79 Alternatively, they may have been captured during the rule of his successor [Narasimhagupta](/source/Narasimhagupta).[77]

#### First Battle of Eran (510 CE)

A decisive battle occurred in [Malwa](/source/Malwa), where a local Gupta ruler, probably a governor, named [Bhanugupta](/source/Bhanugupta) was in charge. In the *[Bhanugupta](/source/Bhanugupta) [Eran](/source/Eran)* inscription, this local ruler reports that his army participated in a great battle in 510 CE at [Eran](/source/Eran), where it suffered severe casualties.[77] Bhanugupta was probably vanquished by Toramana at this battle, so that the western Gupta province of [Malwa](/source/Malwa) fell into the hands of the Hunas.[77]

Portrait of [Toramana](/source/Toramana). He sacked [Kausambi](/source/Kausambi) and occupied [Malwa](/source/Malwa).[78]

According to a 6th-century CE Buddhist work, the *[Manjusri-mula-kalpa](/source/Manjusri-mula-kalpa)*, Bhanugupta lost Malwa to the "[Shudra](/source/Shudra)" [Toramana](/source/Toramana), who continued his conquest to [Magadha](/source/Magadha), forcing [Narasimhagupta](/source/Narasimhagupta) Baladitya to make a retreat to [Bengal](/source/Bengal). Toramana "possessed of great prowess and armies" then conquered the city of [Tirtha](/source/Tirtha_(Hinduism)) in the [Gauda](/source/Gauda_Kingdom) country (modern [Bengal](/source/Bengal)).[79][Note 2] Toramana is said to have crowned a new king in [Benares](/source/Benares), named Prakataditya, who is also presented as a son of Narasimha Gupta.[77]

The [Eran](/source/Eran) "[Varaha](/source/Varaha)" boar, under the neck of which can be found the [Eran boar inscription](/source/Eran_boar_inscription_of_Toramana) mentioning the rule of Toramana.[80]

*Mahārājadhirāja Shrī Toramāṇa*
"Great King of Kings, Lord Toramana"
 in the [Eran boar inscription of Toramana](/source/Eran_boar_inscription_of_Toramana) in the [Gupta script](/source/Gupta_script).[81]

A rare gold coin of [Toramana](/source/Toramana) in the style of the Guptas. The obverse legend reads: "The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven".[82][83]

Having conquered the territory of Malwa from the Guptas, Toramana was mentioned in a famous inscription in [Eran](/source/Eran), confirming his rule on the region.[77] The *[Eran boar inscription of Toramana](/source/Eran_boar_inscription_of_Toramana)* (in [Eran](/source/Eran), Malwa, 540 km south of [New Delhi](/source/New_Delhi), state of [Madhya Pradesh](/source/Madhya_Pradesh)) of his first regnal year indicates that eastern [Malwa](/source/Malwa) was included in his dominion. The inscription is written under the neck of the boar, in 8 lines of [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) in the [Brahmi script](/source/Brahmi_script). The first line of the inscription, in which Toramana is introduced as *Mahararajadhidaja* (The Great King of Kings),[75]: 79 reads:

In year one of the reign of the King of Kings Sri-[Toramana](/source/Toramana), who rules the world with splendor and radiance...

— [Eran boar inscription of Toramana](/source/Eran_boar_inscription_of_Toramana)[80]

On his gold coins minted in India in the style of the Gupta Emperors, Toramana presented himself confidently as:

*Avanipati Torama(no) vijitya vasudham divam jayati*

The lord of the Earth, Toramana, having conquered the Earth, wins Heaven

— Toramana gold coin legend.[82][83]

The fact that the Alchon Huns issued gold coins, such as the Toramana issue, in addition to their silver and copper coins, suggest that their empire in India was quite rich and powerful.[84]

#### Defeat (515 CE)

Toramana was finally defeated by local Indian rulers. The local ruler [Bhanugupta](/source/Bhanugupta) is sometimes credited with vanquishing Toramana, as his 510 CE inscription in [Eran](/source/Eran), recording his participation in "a great battle", is vague enough to allow for such an interpretation. The "great battle" in which Bhanagupta participated is not detailed, and it is impossible to know what it was, or which way it ended, and interpretations vary.[85][86][87] [Mookerji](/source/Radha_Kumud_Mukherjee) and others consider, in view of the inscription as well as the *[Manjusri-mula-kalpa](/source/Manjusri-mula-kalpa)*, that Bhanugupta was, on the contrary, vanquished by Toramana at the 510 CE Eran battle, so that the western Gupta province of [Malwa](/source/Malwa) fell into the hands of the Hunas at that point,[77] so that Toramana could be mentioned in the [Eran](/source/Eran) boar inscription, as the ruler of the region.[77]

Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of the [Aulikara dynasty](/source/Aulikaras) of [Malwa](/source/Malwa), after nearly 20 years in India. According to the [Rīsthal stone-slab inscription](/source/R%C4%ABsthal_inscription), discovered in 1983, King [Prakashadharma](/source/Aulikaras) defeated Toramana in 515 CE.[72][73][88] The First Hunnic War thus ended with a Hunnic defeat, and Hunnic troops apparently retreated to the area of [Punjab](/source/Punjab).[72] The *Manjusri-mula-kalpa* simply states that Toramana died in [Benares](/source/Benares) as he was returning westward from his battles with Narasimhagupta.[77]

### Second Hunnic War: to Malwa and retreat

[Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula) on one of his coins. He was finally defeated in 528 by King [Yasodharman](/source/Yasodharman).

The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula), son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the [Jhelum](/source/Jhelum) by Chinese monk [Song Yun](/source/Song_Yun). At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in [Gwalior](/source/Gwalior), [Central India](/source/Central_India) as "Lord of the Earth" in the [Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula](/source/Gwalior_inscription_of_Mihirakula).[72] According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital [Pataliputra](/source/Pataliputra), which was sacked and left in ruins.[89][75]: 64

There was a king called Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mihirakula), who established his authority in this town ([Sagala](/source/Sagala)) and ruled over India. He was of quick talent, and naturally brave. He subdued all the neighbouring provinces without exception.

— [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang) "The Record of the Western Regions", 7th century CE[90]

The destructions of Mihirakula are also recorded in the [Rajatarangini](/source/Rajatarangini):[11]

Mihirakula, a man of violent acts and resembling [Kāla](/source/K%C4%81la) (Death) ruled in the land which was overrun by hordes of [Mlecchas](/source/Mlecchas)... the people knew his approach by noticing the vultures, crows, and other [birds], which were flying ahead to feed on those who were being slain within his army's [reach]

— The Rajatarangini[11]

Pillar of [Yashodharman](/source/Yashodharman) at [Sondani](/source/Sondani) near [Mandsaur](/source/Mandsaur), with the [Sondani inscription](/source/Sondani_inscription) claiming victory over [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula) of the Alchons in 528 CE.

Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by [Yasodharman](/source/Yasodharman), the [Aulikara](/source/Aulikara) king of Malwa, in the [Battle of Sondani](/source/Battle_of_Sondani) in [Central India](/source/Central_India), which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The [Sondani inscription](/source/Sondani_inscription) in [Sondani](/source/Sondani), near [Mandsaur](/source/Mandsaur), records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings,[91][Note 3] and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula".[72] In a part of the Sondani inscription [Yasodharman](/source/Yasodharman) thus praises himself for having defeated king [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula):[80]

[Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula) used the Indian [Gupta script](/source/Gupta_script) on his coinage. Obv: Bust of king, with legend in [Gupta script](/source/Gupta_script) () ,[92] *(Ja)yatu Mihirakula* ("Let there be victory to Mihirakula").[93][94][95][96]

He (Yasodharman) to whose two feet respect was paid, with complimentary presents of the flowers from the lock of hair on the top of (his) head, by even that (famous) king [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula), whose forehead was pained through being bent low down by the strength of (his) arm in (the act of compelling) obeisance

— [Sondani pillar inscription](/source/Sondani_inscription)[91][97]

The [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) emperor [Narasimhagupta](/source/Narasimhagupta) is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monk [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang).[98][99] In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of [Magadha](/source/Magadha) named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler [Narasimhagupta Baladitya](/source/Narasimhagupta_Baladitya)) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom".[99] Mihirakula is then said to have returned to [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir) to retake the throne.[100][54]: 168 This ended the Second Hunnic War in c. 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.[72]

#### Victories of the Maukharis

According to the [Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena](/source/Aphsad_inscription_of_%C4%80dityasena), the [Maukharis](/source/Maukharis) also fought against the Hunas in the areas of the [Gangetic Doab](/source/Gangetic_Doab) and [Magadha](/source/Magadha).[101] The Aphsad inscription of [Ādityasena](/source/Aditya-sena) mentions the military successes of kings of the [Later Gupta dynasty](/source/Later_Gupta_dynasty) against the Maukharis, and explains that the Maukharis were past victors of the Hunas:[101]

The [Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena](/source/Aphsad_inscription_of_%C4%80dityasena)

The son of that king ([Kumaragupta](/source/Kumara-gupta)) was the illustrious [Dâmôdaragupta](/source/Damodara-gupta), by whom (his) enemies were slain, just like the demons by (the god) [Dâmôdara](/source/Damodar_(name_of_Krishna)). Breaking up the proudly stepping array of mighty elephants, belonging to the Maukhari, which had thrown aloft in battle the troops of the Hûnas (in order to trample them to death), he became unconscious (and expired in the fight).

— Line 8 of the [Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena](/source/Aphsad_inscription_of_%C4%80dityasena).[102]

The Maukharis led by their king [Ishanavarman](/source/Ishanavarman), rather than any of the [Guptas](/source/Guptas), were therefore pivotal in repelling the Hunas.[103]

### Retreat to Gandhara and Kashmir (530 CE)

Coinage of [Sri Pravarasena](/source/Sri_Pravarasena), successor of Mihirakula, and supposed founder of [Srinagar](/source/Srinagar). *Obverse:* Standing king with two figured seated below. Name "Pravarasena". *Reverse:* goddess seated on a lion. Legend "Kidāra". Circa 6th-early 7th century CE

The Alchon Huns resettled in the area of [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) and [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir) in northwestern [India](/source/India) under the rule of [Sri Pravarasena](/source/Sri_Pravarasena) (c.530-590 CE), thought to be the son of Toramana.[104] His reign probably lasted about 60 years from circa 530 CE.[104][105] According to [Kalhana](/source/Kalhana)'s 12th century text *[Rajatarangini](/source/Rajatarangini)*, Pravarasena established a new capital named Pravarapura (also known as Pravarasena-pura). Based on topographical details, Pravarapura appears to be same as the modern city of [Srinagar](/source/Srinagar).[106][104] He also built a temple named "Pravaresha".[104][105]

Pravarasena was probably succeeded by a king named [Gokarna](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gokarna_(king)&action=edit&redlink=1), a follower of [Shiva](/source/Shiva), and then by his son king [Narendraditya Khinkhila](/source/Narendraditya_Khinkhila).[105][104] The son of Narendraditya was [Yudhishthira](/source/Yudhishthira_(Huna_king)), who succeeded him as king, and was the last known king of the Alchon Huns.[104] According to the *[Rajatarangini](/source/Rajatarangini)* Yudhishthira ruled 40 years, probably until circa 625 CE, but he was dethroned by Pratapaditya, son of the founder of the [Karkoṭa Empire](/source/Karko%E1%B9%ADa_Empire), [Durlabhavardhana](/source/Durlabhavardhana).[107][108][109]

#### Kashmir descendants of the Alchon Huns

Several rulers with Alchon names appear in [Kalhana](/source/Kalhana)'s *[Rajatarangini](/source/Rajatarangini)*.[110] Although the chronology of the *Rajatarangini* is largely deficient, several of the names of these rulers, especially those belonging to the so-called [Gonanda dynasty (II)](/source/Gonanda_dynasty_(II)), have been confirmed by coin finds in Kashmir and dated to the 7th century CE. They were "very likely" descendants of the Alchon Huns in the Kashmir area.[111]

### Retreat to Kabulistan and displacement of the Nezak Huns

Portrait of [Toramana II](/source/Toramana_II), from his coinage.

Around the end of the 6th century CE, the Alchons withdrew to [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir) and, pulling back from [Punjab](/source/Punjab) and [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara), moved west across the [Khyber Pass](/source/Khyber_Pass) where they resettled in [Kabulistan](/source/Kabulistan) under the leadership of [Toramana II](/source/Toramana_II).[112] There, their coinage suggests that they merged with the [Nezak](/source/Nezak) – as coins in Nezak style now bear the Alchon *[tamga](/source/Tamga)* mark.[113][80]

Alchon-[Nezak](/source/Nezak) "crossover coinage", 580–680. Nezak-style bust on the obverse, and [Alchon](/source/Alchon) [tamga](/source/Tamga)  within double border on the reverse.[113]

During the 7th century, continued military encounters are reported between the Hunas and the northern Indian states which followed the disappearance of the Gupta Empire. For example, [Prabhakaravardhana](/source/Prabhakaravardhana), the [Vardhana dynasty](/source/Vardhana_dynasty) king of [Thanesar](/source/Thanesar) in northern India and father of [Harsha](/source/Harsha), is reported to have been "A lion to the [Huna](/source/Huna_people) deer, a burning fever to the king of the [Indus](/source/Indus) land".[114]: 253

The Alchons in India declined rapidly around the same time that the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites), a related group to the north, were defeated by an alliance between the Sassanians and the [Western Turkic Kaghanate](/source/Western_Turkic_Kaghanate) in 557–565 CE.[115]: 187 The areas of [Khuttal](/source/Khuttal) and [Kapisa](/source/Kapisa_Province)-[Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) had remained independent kingdoms under the Alchon Huns, under kings such as [Narendra](/source/Narendraditya_Khinkhila), but in 625 CE they were taken over by the expanding [Western Turks](/source/Western_Turks) when they established the [Yabghus of Tokharistan](/source/Yabghus_of_Tokharistan).[116] Eventually, the Nezak-Alchons were replaced by the [Turk Shahi](/source/Turk_Shahi) dynasty around 665 CE.[115]: 187

## Religion and ethics

### Buddhism

Alchon devotee, [Butkara I](/source/Butkara_Stupa) (construction phase 4), 5th century CE.[117]

The four Alchon kings [Khingila](/source/Khingila), [Toramana](/source/Toramana), Javukha, and [Mehama](/source/Mehama) are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in the [Talagan copper scroll](/source/Talagan_copper_scroll) inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control of [Taxila](/source/Taxila) (around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India.[117] Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa in [Hadda](/source/Hadda%2C_Afghanistan).[118]

Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the [Butkara Stupa](/source/Butkara_Stupa) (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.[119]

### Persecution of Buddhism

Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by [Buddhist](/source/Buddhist) sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) in northern (modern day) [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan).[120] During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed.[121] In particular, the writings of Chinese monk [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang) from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) and the expulsion of monks.[54]: 162 Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular [Greco-Buddhist art](/source/Greco-Buddhist_art), becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in c. 630 CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[122]

Although the Guptas were traditionally a [Hindu](/source/Hindu) dynasty,[123] around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writer [Paramartha](/source/Paramartha), [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula)'s supposed nemesis [Narasimhagupta Baladitya](/source/Narasimhagupta_Baladitya) was brought up under the influence of the [Mahayanist](/source/Mahayanist) philosopher [Vasubandhu](/source/Vasubandhu).[123] He built a [sangharama](/source/Sangharama) at [Nalanda](/source/Nalanda) and a 300 ft (91 m) high [vihara](/source/Vihara) with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the [Bodhi tree](/source/Bodhi_tree)". According to the *[Manjushrimulakalpa](/source/Manjushrimulakalpa)* (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation ([Dhyana](/source/Dhy%C4%81na_in_Buddhism)).[123] Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[124]: 45[125]: 330

The 12th century [Kashmiri](/source/Kashmir) historian [Kalhana](/source/Kalhana) also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:

Solar symbolism

Solar symbol on the coinage of [Toramana](/source/Toramana).

[Khingila](/source/Khingila) with solar symbol.

Alchon king with small male figure wearing solar [nimbus](/source/Halo_(religious_iconography)).

In him, the northern region brought forth, as it were, another god of death, bent in rivalry to surpass... [Yama](/source/Yama) (the god of death residing in the southern regions). People knew of his approach by noticing the vultures, crows and other birds flying ahead eager to feed on those who were being slain within his army's reach. The royal [Vetala](/source/Vetala) (demon) was day and night surrounded by thousands of murdered human beings, even in his pleasure houses. This terrible enemy of mankind had no pity for children, no compassion for women, no respect for the aged

— 12th century [Kashmiri](/source/Kashmir) historian [Kalhana](/source/Kalhana)[99]

### Hinduism (Sun cult, Vaishnavism and Shaivism)

Coinage of [Khingila](/source/Khingila) with Hindu goddess [Lakshmi](/source/Lakshmi).

The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of [steppe nomads](/source/Steppe_nomads). This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship of [Surya](/source/Surya) in India.[126]

The Hindu [Vaishnavite](/source/Vaishnavite) goddess [Lakshmi](/source/Lakshmi), goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess of [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especially [Khingila](/source/Khingila),[127][128] and [Toramana](/source/Toramana).

Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of [Shiva](/source/Shiva),[129][130] although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.[99]

Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the [Shankaracharya Temple](/source/Shankaracharya_Temple), a shrine dedicated to [Shiva](/source/Shiva) in [Srinagar](/source/Srinagar),[131][132]

## Consequences for India

See also: [Classical India](/source/Classical_India) and [Decline of Buddhism in India](/source/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_India)

The Alchon invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to the [middle kingdoms of India](/source/Middle_kingdoms_of_India).[99]

### Destructions

[South Asia 600 CE](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:South_Asia_in_600_CE)

[MORIS](/source/Mori_Rajputs)

[PANDYAS](/source/Pandyan_dynasty)

[LICCHAVIS](/source/Licchavi_(kingdom))

[CHOLAS](/source/Chola_dynasty)

[ZHANGZHUNG](/source/Zhangzhung)

[CHERAS](/source/Chera_dynasty)

[SAMATATAS](/source/Samatata)

[KAMARUPA](/source/Kamarupa)

[VISHNU- KUNDINAS](/source/Vishnukundina_dynasty)

[PALLAVAS](/source/Pallava_dynasty)

[ALUPAS](/source/Alupa_dynasty)

[NEZAKS](/source/Nezak_Huns)

**ALCHONS**

[KALINGAS](/source/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty)

[PANDUVAMSHIS](/source/Panduvamshis_of_Dakshina_Kosala)

[GAUDA](/source/Gauda_Kingdom)

[MAUKHARIS](/source/Maukhari_dynasty)

[SHAILODBHAVAS](/source/Shailodbhava_dynasty)

[GONANDAS](/source/Gonanda_dynasty_(II))

[WESTERN TURKS](/source/Western_Turks)

[TOCHARIANS](/source/Tocharians)

[VALABHI](/source/Kingdom_of_Valabhi)

[SINDH](/source/Rai_dynasty)

[MANDAVYA- PURA](/source/Pratiharas_of_Mandavyapura)

[LATER GUPTAS](/source/Later_Gupta_dynasty)

[THANESAR](/source/Pushyabhuti_dynasty)

[CHALUKYAS](/source/Chalukya_dynasty)

[EARLY KALA- CHURIS](/source/Kalachuris_of_Mahishmati)

[PERSIAN EMPIRE](/source/Sasanian_Empire)

Political fragmentation of South Asia after the fall of the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) and the retreat of the Alchon Huns to the northwest, circa 600 CE.[133]

Indian urban culture was left in decline. Major traditional cities, such as [Kausambi](/source/Kausambi) and probably [Ujjain](/source/Ujjain) were in ruins, [Vidisha](/source/Vidisha) and [Mathura](/source/Mathura) fell into decline.[134] [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks, started to collapse.[99] Great centers of learning were destroyed, such as the city of [Taxila](/source/Taxila), bringing cultural regression.[99] The [art of Mathura](/source/Art_of_Mathura) suffered greatly from the destructions brought by the Hunas, as did the [art of Gandhara](/source/Art_of_Gandhara) in the northwest, and both schools of art were nearly wiped out under the rule of the *Huna* [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula).[135] New cities arose from these destructions, such as [Dashapura](/source/Dashapura), [Kanyakubja](/source/Kanyakubja), [Sthaneshvara](/source/Sthaneshvara), [Valabhi](/source/Valabhi) and [Shripura](/source/Shripura).[1]

### Political fragmentation

Soon after the invasions, the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire), already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well.[114]: 221 Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[136] Many autonomous regional states rose to prominence following the dislocation of Gupta power: the [Aulikaras](/source/Aulikaras), the [Maukharis](/source/Maukharis), the [Maitrakas](/source/Maitrakas), the [Kalacuris](/source/Kalachuris_of_Mahishmati) or the [Vardhanas](/source/Vardhanas), all in a constant flux of rivalry.[134] With the end of Hunnic power, some India polities, such as the [Maukhari dynasty](/source/Maukhari_dynasty) were able to establish direct contacts with [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia) and the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire): the Maukhari King [Śarvavarman](/source/%C5%9Aarvavarman) of [Kannauj](/source/Kannauj) is said to have introduced the game of [chess](/source/Chess) to the Sasanian court of [Khosrow I](/source/Khosrow_I), between the beginning of Śarvavarman's reign in 560/565 and the end of Khosrow's reign in 579.[137][138]

### Rise of Saivism

[Vaisnavism](/source/Vaisnavism), which had been strongly supported by the Gupta Empire, was discredited by the decline and the ultimate failure of the Empire.[1] All the newly arising regional powers preferred adopting [Saivism](/source/Saivism) instead, as did the Alchon Huns under Mihirakula, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of [Shiva](/source/Shiva), and its ideology of power.[1] Vaisnavism only remained strong in the territories which had not been affected by these events: [South India](/source/South_India) and [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir).[1]

### Artistic syncretism: "A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"

Fragment of a lid with a hunting scene, Gandhara, 5-6th century CE.[139]

The advances of the Alchon Huns in India seems to have fostered a type of syncretic art in Gandhara during the 5th-6th century, mixing [Gupta art](/source/Gupta_art) with [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian_art) and Hunish inspiration and themes.[140] Particularly significant are a type of decorated lids from [Gandhara](/source/Gandhara) which display courtly or hunting scenes, mixing them with Gupta decorative designs.[140]

		- Lid with Combat between a Man and a Lion. Cleveland Museum of Art.[141]

		- Box Lid with a Winged Lion, Gandhara, 5th century CE

		- Box Lid with a Lion Attacking an Elephant, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[142]

		- Box Lid with a Phoenix, Gandhara, 5th century CE.[143]

#### The Chilek silver bowl

The [Chilek bowl](/source/Chilek_bowl), with an Alchon Hun ruler in the central medallion, surrounded by naked Indian-style dancers.

Main article: [Chilek silver bowl](/source/Chilek_silver_bowl)

Several silver bowls related to the Alchons have been found in the area of [Samarkand](/source/Samarkand), including the "Chilek bowl" ("Čilek bowl"), which is considered as the "best known specimen of Hephthalite art", and is similar in composition with the [Hephthalite silver bowl](/source/Hephthalite_silver_bowl), but represents "six dancers in Indian costume with Iranian ribbons and Hephthalite-short heads". Each of the dancers is positioned under a pointed arch in Indian style, and seems to be derived from contemporary [Gupta art](/source/Gupta_art).[144] This bowl, too, is considered as an Alchon object, but was possibly manufactured in India at the request of the Alchons. It is now in the [Samarkand Museum](/source/State_Museum_of_Culture_History_of_Uzbekistan).[145][146][144]

The man in the medallion at the bottom of the Chilek bowl has a clearly [elongated skull](/source/Elongated_skull), characteristic of the Alchons Huns at that time and place.[147]

### Coinage legacy (6th-12th century CE)

Main article: [Indo-Sasanian coinage](/source/Indo-Sasanian_coinage)

As they invaded northern and central India circa 500 CE, the Alchon Huns issued several types of coinage on the model of the [Sasanian Empire](/source/Sasanian_Empire), with ruler in profile on the obverse and sacred fire with attendants on the reverse.[148] It is thought that in the process of minting coins in occupied lands, they transmitted Sasanian coin designs to northern and western India.[148] This created a major type of [Indian coinage](/source/Indian_coinage) called "[Indo-Sasanian coinage](/source/Indo-Sasanian_coinage)", which lasted in degraded form until the 12th century CE as far as the Gangetic region.[148]

### Ethnic legacy

Coin of the [Gurjara Confederacy](/source/Gurjaradesa), [Peroz I](/source/Peroz_I) type. [Sindh](/source/Sindh), circa 570-712 CE.

The [Gurjaras](/source/Gurjaras) and [Gurjara-Pratiharas](/source/Gurjara-Pratiharas) suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the [Hunas](/source/Hunas) invasion of that region.[149] The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian element, and can probably be considered as a [Hunnic state](/source/Hunas), although its precise origins remain unclear.[150] In [Bana](/source/Banabhatta)'s *[Harshacharita](/source/Harshacharita)* (7th century CE), the Gurjaras are associated with the Hunas.[151] Some of the Hunas may also have contributed to the formation of the warlike [Rajputs](/source/Rajputs).[150]

## Sources

The [Talagan copper scroll](/source/Talagan_copper_scroll)

Ancient sources refer to the Alchons and associated groups ambiguously with various names, such as [Huna](/source/Huna_people) in Indian texts, and [Xionites](/source/Xionites) in Greek texts. [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang) chronicled some of the later history of the Alchons.[98]

The references in Sanskrit sources to the dynasty of [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula) are of great importance as they throw light on the character of the rulers. The largest number of references is found in Kalhana's [Rajatarangini](/source/Rajatarangini).[152]

Modern archaeology has provided valuable insights into the history of the Alchons. The most significant cataloguing of the Alchon dynasty came in 1967 with Robert Göbl's analysis of the coinage of the "[Iranian Huns](/source/Iranian_Huns)".[153] This work documented the names of a partial chronology of Alchon kings, beginning with Khingila. In 2012, the [Kunsthistorisches Museum](/source/Kunsthistorisches_Museum) completed a [reanalysis](http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/?language=en) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210217071007/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/?language=en) 17 February 2021 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) of previous finds together with a large number of new coins that appeared on the antiquities market during the [Second Afghan Civil War](/source/Second_Afghan_Civil_War), redefining the timeline and narrative of the Alchons and related peoples.[115]

### Talagan copper scroll

Main article: [Talagan copper scroll](/source/Talagan_copper_scroll)

A significant contribution to our understanding of Alchon history came in 2006 when Gudrun Melzer and Lore Sander published their finding of the "[Talagan copper scroll](/source/Talagan_copper_scroll)", also known as the "Schøyen Copper Scroll", dated to 492 or 493, that mentions the four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama (who was reigning at the time) as donors to a Buddhist reliquary [stupa](/source/Stupa).[154][Note 4][Note 5]

## Rulers

Alchon Huns (400–670 CE) c. 400–440 (Anonymous kings) c. 430–490 Khingila c. 490 Javukha c. 461–493 Mehama c. 490 Lakhana Udayaditya Aduman c. 490–515 Toramana c.515–540 Mihirakula c.530–570 Toramana II Kashmir descendants: 6-7th c. Pravarasena 6-7th c. Megavahana 6-7th c. Tujina 6-7th c. Toramana of Kashmir v t e

The rulers of the Alchons practised skull deformation, as evidenced from their coins, a practice shared with the [Huns](/source/Huns) that migrated into Europe. The names of the first Alchon rulers do not survive. Starting from 430 CE, names of Alchon kings survive on coins[153] and religious inscriptions:[154]

- anonymous kings (400 - 430 CE)

- [Khingila](/source/Khingila) (c. 430 – 490 CE)

- [Javukha](/source/Javukha)/Zabocho (c. mid 5th – early 6th CE)

- [Mehama](/source/Mehama) (c. 461 – 493 CE)

- Lakhana Udayaditya (c. 490's CE)

- Aduman

- [Toramana](/source/Toramana) (c. 490 – 515 CE)

- [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula) (c. 515 – 540 CE)

- [Toramana II](/source/Toramana_II) (c. 530 – 570 CE)

- [Pravarasena](/source/Sri_Pravarasena) (c. 530 – 590 CE)

- Gokarna (c. 570 – 590 CE)

- [Narendraditya Khinkhila](/source/Narendraditya_Khinkhila) (c. 590 – 630 CE)

- [Yudhishthira](/source/Yudhishthira_(Huna_king)) (630-670 CE)

## Coinage

An early Alchon Huns coin based on a Sasanian design, with bust imitating Sasanian king [Shapur III](/source/Shapur_III). Only the legend "Alchono" appears on the obverse in the Greco-Bactrian script.[37][50][155]

**Early Bactrian coinage based on Sasanian designs**

The earliest Alchon Hun coins were based on [Sasanian](/source/Sasanian) designs, often with the simple addition of the Alchon *[tamgha](/source/Tamgha)* and a mention of "Alchon" or "Alkhan".[38] Various coins minted in [Bactria](/source/Bactria) and based on Sasanian designs are known, often with busts imitating Sasanian kings [Shapur II](/source/Shapur_II) (r.309 to 379 CE) and [Shapur III](/source/Shapur_III) (r.383 to 388 CE), with attendants to a [fire altar](/source/Fire_altar) on the reverse.[50][51] It is thought that the Sasanids lost control of [Bactria](/source/Bactria) to the [Kidarites](/source/Kidarites) during the reign of Shapur II circa 370 CE, followed by the [Hephthalites](/source/Hephthalites), and subsequently by the Alchon.[40]

**Later original coinage**

Later Alchon coinage became original and differed from predecessors in that it was devoid of Iranian (Sasanian) symbolism.[48] The rulers are depicted with elongated skulls, apparently a result of [artificial cranial deformation](/source/Artificial_cranial_deformation).[48]

After their invasion of India the coins of the Alchon were numerous and varied, as they issued copper, silver and gold coins, sometimes roughly following the Gupta pattern. The Alchon empire in India must have been quite significant and rich, with the ability to issue a significant volume of gold coins.[156]

### Coinage

		- Silver coin of [Toramana](/source/Toramana) in Western [Gupta](/source/Gupta_Empire) style, with the Gupta peacock and [Brahmi](/source/Brahmi) legend on the reverse. Similar to the silver coin type of [Skandagupta](/source/Skandagupta). On the obverse the date "52" is also inscribed.[157] A modern Image:[\[1\]](http://coinindia.com/H119-BM.jpg).

		- Alchon [Tamgha](/source/Tamgha) symbol on a coin of Khingila.

		- [Khingila](/source/Khingila) with the word "Alchono" in [Bactrian script](/source/Bactrian_script) (αλχονο) and the [Tamgha](/source/Tamgha) symbol on his coins.[158][159]

		- Silver drachm of [Khingila](/source/Khingila) (early portrait) without headdress, mid-late 5th century.[Note 6]

		- Silver drachm of Khingila (mature portrait), [Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_script) legend: χιγγιλο αλχοννο "Khiggilo Alchono".[Note 7]

		- Silver drachm of Javukha, mid-late 5th century.

		- Silver drachm of [Mehama](/source/Mehama) legend: “ṣāhi mehama", mid-late 5th century.

		- Silver drachm of Lakhana, late 5th-early 6th centuries.

		- Gold dinar of Adomano, [Kushano-Sasanian](/source/Kushano-Sasanian) style, mid-late 5th century.

		- Silver drachm of [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula), early-mid 6th century.

		- Bronze drachm of Toramana II wearing trident crown, late-phase Gandharan style. mid 6th century.

		- Silver stater of Toramana II, [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir) style, mid-late 6th century.

		- Bronze drachm of Narana-Narenda (possibly Toramana II) wearing trident crown, late 6th century.

		- Khingila as a young king, without headdress. [Artificial cranial deformation](/source/Artificial_cranial_deformation) clearly visible.

		- [Vishnu Nicolo Seal](/source/Vishnu_Nicolo_Seal) representing [Vishnu](/source/Vishnu) with a worshipper (probably [Mihirakula](/source/Mihirakula)), 4th–6th century CE. The inscription in cursive [Bactrian](/source/Bactrian_language) reads: "[Mihira](/source/Mitra_(Vedic)), [Vishnu](/source/Vishnu) and [Shiva](/source/Shiva)". [British Museum](/source/British_Museum).

## Notes

Part of a series on the History of Afghanistan Timeline Ancient Indus Valley Civilisation 2200–1800 BC Oxus civilization 2100–1800 BC Gandhara kingdom 1500–535 BC Median Empire 728–550 BC Achaemenid Empire 550–330 BC Macedonian Empire 330–312 BC Seleucid Empire 312–150 BC Maurya Empire 305–180 BC Greco-Bactrian kingdom 256–125 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Indo-Greek kingdom 180–90 BC Indo-Scythian kingdom 155–80? BC Kushan Empire 135 BC – 248 AD Indo-Parthian kingdom 20 BC – 50? AD Sasanian Empire 230–651 Kidarite kingdom 320–465 Rob Alchon Huns 380–560 Hephthalite Empire 410–557 Nezak Huns 484–711 Medieval Kabul Shahi 565–879 Principality of Chaghaniyan 7th–8th centuries Rashidun Caliphate 652–661 Tang China 660–669 Tibetan Empire 660–842 Umayyads 661–750 Zunbils 680–870 Lawik 750-977 Abbasids 750–821 Tahirids 821–873 Saffarids 863–900 Samanids 875–999 Banjurid dynasty 900–1030 Ghaznavids 963–1187 Ghurids before 879–1215 Seljuks 1037–1194 Khwarezmids 1215–1231 Mongol Invasion 1219–1226 Chagatai Khanate 1226–1245 Qarlughids 1224–1266 Ilkhanate 1256–1335 Kartids 1245–1381 Timurids 1370–1507 Arghuns 1520–1591 Modern Mughals 1501–1738 Safavids 1510–1709 Kunduz Khanate ?–1859 Hotak dynasty 1709–1738 Sadozai Sultanate 1716–1732 Afsharid Iran 1738–1747 Durrani Empire 1747–1823 Maimana Khanate 1747–1892 Herat 1793–1863 Principality of Qandahar 1818–1855 Emirate 1823–1926 Saqqawist Emirate 1929 Kingdom 1926–1973 Daoud coup 1973 Republic 1973–1978 Saur Revolution 1978 Democratic Republic 1978–1987 Republic 1987–1992 Tanai coup attempt 1990 Islamic State 1992–1996 Islamic Emirate 1996–2001 US invasion 2001 Islamic State (reinstated) 2001 Interim/Transitional Administration 2001–2004 Islamic Republic (politics) 2004–2021 Islamic Emirate (reinstated) since 2021 Related historical regions Arachosia Aria Ariana Bactria Gandhara Iran Kabulistan Kafiristan Khorasan Kushanshahr Paropamisadae Sistan Zabulistan Related topics Political history Political violence Culture Economic history Name Afghan (ethnonym) List of years List of heads of state Wars List of wars Hinduism history Hindu and Buddhist heritage Jewish history Muslim conquests Category Afghanistan portal v t e

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** "Here, for the first time, the names of Hepthalite (Alchon) kings are given, some of them otherwise known only from coins. Another important fact is that it dates all these kings in the same time." from [Aydogdy Kurbanov](/source/Aydogdy_Kurbanov) (2010). [*The hephthalites: archaeological and historical analysis*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JDUOmgEACAAJ). Berlin: Free University of Berlin. p. 120. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [863884689](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863884689). Retrieved 17 June 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** "After the successful conclusion of the [Eran](/source/Eran) episode, the conquering [Hunas](/source/Hunas) ultimately burst out of Eastern [Malwa](/source/Malwa) and swooped down upon the very heart of the Gupta empire. The eastern countries were overrun and the city of the Gaudas was occupied. The Manjusrimulakalpa gives a scintillating account of this phase of Toramana's conquest. It says that after [Bhanugupta](/source/Bhanugupta)'s defeat and discomfiture, Toramana led the Hunas against Magadha and obliged Baladitya (Narasimha-gupta Baladitya, the reigning Gupta monarch) to retire to [Bengal](/source/Bengal). This great monarch (Toramana), Sudra by caste and possessed of great prowess and armies took hold of that position (bank of the Ganges) and commanded the country round about. That powerful king then invested the town called [Tirtha](/source/Tirtha_(Hinduism)) in the [Gauda](/source/Gauda_Kingdom) country." in Upendra Thakur (1967). [*The Hūṇas in India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=drQ9AAAAMAAJ). Vol. 58. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 122. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [551489665](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/551489665).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** "The earth betook itself (for succour), when it was afflicted by kings of the present age, who manifested pride; who were cruel through want of proper training; who, from delusion, transgressed the path of good conduct; (and) who were destitute of virtuous delights " from ["Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago"](http://www.punjabmonitor.com/2013/04/sondhni-pillars-where-punjabis-met-with.html). *Punjab Monitor*. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-158)** "Together with the great sahi Khingila, together with the god-king Toramana, together with the mistress of a great monastery Sasa, together with the great sahi Mehama, together with Sadavikha, together with the great king Javukha, the son of Sadavikha, during the reign of Mehama."from Gudrun Melzer; Lore Sander (2000). Jens Braarvig (ed.). [*A Copper Scroll Inscription from the Time of the Alchon Huns*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KTDYAAAAMAAJ). Buddhist manuscripts. Vol. 3. Oslo: Hermes Pub. pp. 251–278. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788280340061](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788280340061).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-159)** For an image of the copper scroll: Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna [Showcase 8](http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase8?language=en) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201115150326/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase8?language=en) 15 November 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** For equivalent coin, see [CNG Coins](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=156855)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** This coin is in the collection of the [British Museum](/source/British_Museum). For equivalent coin, see [CNG Coins](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=156854)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017105–124_1-8) [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), pp. 105–124.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020_2-0)** [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** [Schwartzberg, Joseph E.](/source/Joseph_E._Schwartzberg) (1978). [*A Historical atlas of South Asia*](https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/reference/schwartzberg/query.py?display_type=image_display&object=062#gsc.tab=0). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 25. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0226742210](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226742210).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** [Schwartzberg, Joseph E.](/source/Joseph_E._Schwartzberg) (1978). [*A Historical atlas of South Asia*](https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/reference/schwartzberg/query.py?object=182&display_type=image_display#gsc.tab=0). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (k). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0226742210](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226742210).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bakker_2017_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bakker_2017_5-1) Bakker, Hans (2017), [*Monuments of Hope, Gloom and Glory in the Age of the Hunnic Wars: 50 years that changed India (484–534)*](https://web.archive.org/web/20200111041719/https://www.knaw.nl/en/news/publications/monuments-of-hope-gloom-and-glory), Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Section 4, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-6984-715-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6984-715-3), archived from [the original](https://www.knaw.nl/en/news/publications/monuments-of-hope-gloom-and-glory) on 11 January 2020, retrieved 20 May 2019

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Bakker, Hans (16 July 2014). [*The World of the Skandapurāṇa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6p2XCgAAQBAJ&q=sialkot+xuanzang&pg=PA113). BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004277144](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004277144).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1999). [*History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=FcKtIPVQ6REC&q=mihirakula+sialkot&pg=PA142). Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788120815407](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120815407).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Jäger, Ulf. ["A Unique Alxon-Hunnic Horse-and-Rider Statuette (Late Fifth Century CE) from Ancient Bactria / Modern Afghanistan in the Pritzker Family Collection, Chicago"](http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp290_horse_rider_statuette.pdf) (PDF). *Sino-Platonic Papers*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220404015732/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp290_horse_rider_statuette.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** "The Alchon Huns....established themselves as overlords of northwestern India, and directly contributed to the downfall of the Guptas" in Neelis, Jason (2010). [*Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA162). BRILL. p. 162. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004181595](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004181595).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** "Note 8: It is now clear that the Hephtalites were not part of those Huns who conquered the land south of the Hindu-Kush and Sind as well in the early 6th century. In fact, this latter Hunnic group was the one commonly known as Alkhon because of the inscriptions on their coins (Vondrovec, 2008)."

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-academia.edu_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-academia.edu_11-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-academia.edu_11-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-academia.edu_11-3) Rezakhani, Khodadad (2021). ["From the Kushans to the Western Turks"](https://www.academia.edu/32671225). *King of the Seven Climes*: 207.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker20204,_17-18_12-0)** [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 4, 17-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017107–108_13-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), pp. 107–108.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlemanny2000346_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlemanny2000346_14-1) [Alemanny 2000](#CITEREFAlemanny2000), p. 346.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Alchono_15-0)** [Khingila](/source/Khingila) with the word "Alchono" in the [Bactrian script](/source/Bactrian_script) (αλχονο) and the [Tamgha](/source/Tamgha) symbol on his coins [CNG Coins](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=114833).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** ["CNG: eAuction 145. HUNNIC TRIBES, Alchon Huns. Khingila. Circa AD 440-490. AR Drachm (30mm, 3.62 g)"](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=90023). *www.cngcoins.com*. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202017_17-0)** [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 17.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017108_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017108_18-1) [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), p. 108.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202018_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202018_19-1) [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlemanny2000347_20-0)** [Alemanny 2000](#CITEREFAlemanny2000), p. 347.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017125_21-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), p. 125.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchottky2004_22-0)** [Schottky 2004](#CITEREFSchottky2004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Syed, Muzaffar H. (20 February 2022). [*History of Indian Nation : Ancient India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy5gEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131). K.K. Publications. p. 131.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Gupta_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Gupta_24-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Gupta_24-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Gupta_24-3) Gupta, Parmanand (1989). [*Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LzHpZ5N5MhcC&pg=PA175). Concept Publishing Company. pp. 174–175. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788170222484](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170222484).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202013_25-0)** [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Agrawal, Ashvini (1989). [*Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PP4). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. [Cover](https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PP4), [viii](https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PR8). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0592-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0592-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-SPR_27-0)** Tewari, S.P.; Ramesh, K.V. (1983). [*JOURNAL OF THE EPIGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA*](https://archive.org/details/journaloftheepig014921mbp). Vol. 10. THE EPIGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA, DHARWAR. pp. [98](https://archive.org/details/journaloftheepig014921mbp/page/n105)–99.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Salomon, Richard (1989). "New Inscriptional Evidence For The History Of The Aulikaras of Mandasor". *Indo-Iranian Journal*. **32** (1): 4 and 27. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/000000089790082971](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000089790082971). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0019-7246](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0019-7246). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24654606](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24654606).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HCCE_119_29-0)** Ahmad Hasan Dani; B. A. Litvinsky; Unesco (1 January 1996). [*History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA119). Paris: UNESCO. p. 119. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-3-103211-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-3-103211-0).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Hyun_30-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Hyun_30-1) [Hyun Jin Kim](/source/Hyun_Jin_Kim) (19 November 2015). [*The Huns*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mcf4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT50). Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. p. 50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-34090-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34090-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202017,_46_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202017,_46_31-1) [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 17, 46.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ALRAM, MICHAEL (2014). ["From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198). *The Numismatic Chronicle*. **174**: 274. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0078-2696](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0078-2696). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44710198](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017109,_123_33-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), pp. 109, 123.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017124_34-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), p. 124.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** ["Hermitage Museum"](https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/what-s-on/temp_exh/2015/blue_hall_paintings?lng=en). *Hermitage Museum*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** "It is possible that the Sogdian aristocratic culture of that time preserved some memory of the glorious days of Khingila, the first Hephthalite conqueror of India. The profile of Rustam, shown on different paintings at Pendzhikent, is very distinct from the other depictions in the Sogdian art, and resembles the Hephthalite prototypes. The portraits feature narrow skulls, V-shaped eyebrows, hooked noses and heavy jaws, and thus closely resemble some portraits of Khingila on the coins(Grenet 2002, 218-219)." Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014). ["THE HEPHTHALITES: ICONOGRAPHICAL MATERIALS"](http://oaji.net/articles/2017/4586-1488311404.pdf) (PDF). *Tyragetia*: 317–334.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-JB_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-JB_37-1) Braarvig, Jens (2000). [*Buddhist Manuscripts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KTDYAAAAMAAJ) (Vol.3 ed.). Hermes Pub. p. 257. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788280340061](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788280340061).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tandon2013_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tandon2013_38-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Tandon2013_38-2) Tandon, Pankaj (2013). ["Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins"](http://coinindia.com/Alchon.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society* (216): 24–34. Retrieved 8 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["CNG: Feature Auction CNG 69. \[Medieval\] HUNNIC TRIBES, Alchon Huns. Anonymous. Circa 400-440 AD. AR Drachm (3.43 gm, 3h). Imitating Sasanian king Shahpur II. Kabul or Gandhara mint"](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=65481). *www.cngcoins.com*. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-BRILL_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-BRILL_40-1) Neelis, Jason (2010). [*Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC&pg=PA159). BRILL. p. 159. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004181595](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004181595).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Scheers, Simone; Quaegebeur, Jan (1982). [*Studia Paulo Naster Oblata: Orientalia antiqua*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GlsbsTTwxjYC&pg=PA55) (in French). Peeters Publishers. p. 55. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789070192105](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789070192105).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. London: Bohn (1862) [XVI-IX](http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ammianus_16_book16.htm)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. London: Bohn (1862) [XVII-V](http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ammianus_17_book17.htm)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Cosmo, Nicola Di; Maas, Michael (2018). [*Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity: Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca. 250–750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cOdTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT698). Cambridge University Press. p. 698. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781108547000](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108547000).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HCCE_38_45-0)** History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Ahmad Hasan Dani, B. A. Litvinsky, [Unesco](/source/Unesco) [p.38 sq](https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA38)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVondrovec2005185_46-0)** [Vondrovec 2005](#CITEREFVondrovec2005), p. 185.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchindel2006677_47-0)** [Schindel 2006](#CITEREFSchindel2006), p. 677.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-CC_48-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-CC_48-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-CC_48-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-CC_48-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-CC_48-4) Michael Maas (29 September 2014). [*The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila*](https://books.google.com/books?id=e0dcBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA286). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 286. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-316-06085-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-06085-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MA7_49-0)** Alram, Michael (1 February 2021). [*"The numismatic legacy of the Sasanians in the East" in Sasanian Iran in the Context of Late Antiquity: The Bahari Lecture Series at the University of Oxford*](https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7). BRILL. p. 7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-46066-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-46066-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-ReferenceA_50-2) ["CNG: eAuction 136. HUNNIC TRIBES. Kidarites. Uncertain King. 5th century AD. AR Drachm (30mm, 4.00 g)"](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=81794). *www.cngcoins.com*. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto_51-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto_51-1) Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (2018). [*Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017*](https://books.google.com/books?id=I7dTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23). Archaeopress. p. 23. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781784918552](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781784918552).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** ALRAM, MICHAEL (2014). "From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush". *The Numismatic Chronicle*. **174**: 268. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0078-2696](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0078-2696). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44710198](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Alram, Michael (2014). ["From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198). *The Numismatic Chronicle*. **174**: 274. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44710198](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Neelis_54-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Neelis_54-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Neelis_54-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Neelis_54-3) Jason Neelis (19 November 2010). [*Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GB-JV2eOr2UC). Leiden: BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-18159-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18159-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017118_55-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), p. 118.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017120–122_56-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), pp. 120–122.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HCCC123_57-0)** Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (1996). [*History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA123). UNESCO. pp. 123–126. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789231032110](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789231032110).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** The Huns, [Hyun Jin Kim](/source/Hyun_Jin_Kim), Routledge, 2015 [p.50 sq](https://books.google.com/books?id=mcf4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT50)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MA_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MA_59-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-MA_59-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-MA_59-3) ALRAM, MICHAEL (2014). ["From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198). *The Numismatic Chronicle*. **174**: 274–275. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0078-2696](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0078-2696). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44710198](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-British_Museum_notice_61-0)** ["British Museum notice"](http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=247021&partId=1). *[British Museum](/source/British_Museum)*. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AG_62-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AG_62-1) Ghosh, Amalananda (1965). [*Taxila*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0NA3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA791). CUP Archive. p. 791.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Le_63-0)** Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). [*Buddhist Architecture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&q=hephthalite+peshawar&pg=PA51). Grafikol. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780984404308](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780984404308). Retrieved 24 March 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kurbanov2010_64-0)** [Kurbanov, Aydogdy](/source/Aydogdy_Kurbanov) (2010). [*The hephthalites: archaeological and historical analysis*](https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/8366/01_Text.pdf) (PDF) (Phd thesis). Berlin: Free University of Berlin. p. 120. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [863884689](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863884689). Retrieved 17 June 2018.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-PB_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-PB_66-1) Brancaccio, Pia (2010). [*The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion*](https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA106). BRILL. pp. 105–106. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004185258](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004185258).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-RCS_67-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-RCS_67-1) Senior, R.C. (1991). ["The Coinage of Sind from 250 AD up to the Arab Conquest"](https://web.archive.org/web/20190926175600/http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf) (PDF). *Oriental Numismatic Society*. **129** (June–July 1991): 3–4. Archived from [the original](http://orientalnumismaticsociety.org/JONS/Files/ONS_129.pdf) (PDF) on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NS_68-0)** Schindel, Nikolaus; Alram, Michael; Daryaee, Touraj; Pendleton, Elizabeth (2016). [*The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: adaptation and expansion*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GqONDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127). Oxbow Books. pp. 126–129. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781785702105](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781785702105).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Brancaccio, Pia (2010). [*The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion*](https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA106). BRILL. p. 106. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004185258](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004185258).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** Auctores Varii (2016). [*Ajanta Dipinta – Painted Ajanta Vol. 1 e 2: Studio sulla tecnica e sulla conservazione del sito rupestre indiano – Studies on the techniques and the conservation of the indian rock art site*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fS34CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59). Gangemi Editore. pp. 58–59. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788849274905](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788849274905).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Brancaccio, Pia (2010). [*The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion*](https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C&pg=PA107). BRILL. pp. 106–107. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004185258](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004185258).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** [*Indian Archaeology 1954–55 A review*](http://nmma.nic.in/nmma/nmma_doc/Indian%20Archaeology%20Review/Indian%20Archaeology%201954-55%20%20A%20Review.pdf) (PDF). p. 18.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker2020484–534_73-6) [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), pp. 484–534.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bakker2014_74-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bakker2014_74-1) Hans Bakker (16 July 2014). [*The World of the Skandapurāṇa*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6p2XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34). Leiden: BRILL. p. 34. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-27714-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27714-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Agnihotri2010_75-0)** V.K. Agnihotri, ed. (2010). [*Indian History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=PA81) (26 ed.). New Delhi: Allied Publishers. p. 81. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-8424-568-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8424-568-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sinha1977_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sinha1977_76-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Sinha1977_76-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Sinha1977_76-3) Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha (1977). [*Dynastic History of Magadha, Cir. 450-1200 A.D.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=V3KDaZY85wYC&pg=PA70) New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. GGKEY:KR1EJ2EGCTJ.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gupta1989_77-0)** Parmanand Gupta (1989). [*Geography from Ancient Indian Coins & Seals*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LzHpZ5N5MhcC&pg=PA175). New DELHI: Concept Publishing Company. p. 175. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7022-248-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7022-248-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Mookerji_78-7) Radhakumud Mookerji (1997). [*The Gupta Empire*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA120) (5th ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 120. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0440-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0440-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** ALRAM, MICHAEL (2003). ["Three Hunnic Bullae from Northwest India"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24049314.pdf) (PDF). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 180, Figure 11. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049314](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049314).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Thakur1967_80-0)** Upendra Thakur (1967). [*The Hūṇas in India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=drQ9AAAAMAAJ). Vol. 58. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. p. 122. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [551489665](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/551489665).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-pro.geo.univie.ac.at_82-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-pro.geo.univie.ac.at_82-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-pro.geo.univie.ac.at_82-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-pro.geo.univie.ac.at_82-3) ["Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191101061621/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase9?language=en). Archived from [the original](http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase9?language=en) on 1 November 2019. Retrieved 23 July 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Fleet, John Faithfull (1960). [*Inscriptions Of The Early Gupta Kings And Their Successors*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254). pp. [158](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.463254/page/n4)–161.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-CNG_Coins_84-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-CNG_Coins_84-1) ["CNG: Feature Auction Triton XIX. HUNNIC TRIBES, Alchon Huns. Toramana. Circa 490-515. AV Dinar (18mm, 9.53 g, 12h)"](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=301345). *www.cngcoins.com*. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-coinindia.com_85-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-coinindia.com_85-1) ["The Identity of Prakasaditya by Pankaj Tandon, Boston University"](http://coinindia.com/Prakasaditya.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** "This makes it quite clear that the Alchon Huns in India must have had a substantial and rich empire, with the capacity to issue a relatively large volume of gold coins." in TANDON, PANKAJ (7 July 2015). "The Identity of Prakāśāditya". *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society*. **25** (4): 668. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1356186315000346](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186315000346). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2144/37851](https://hdl.handle.net/2144%2F37851). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [43869990](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43869990). [Full article](http://coinindia.com/Prakasaditya.pdf)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Misra2003_87-0)** Om Prakash Misra (2003). [*Archaeological Excavations in Central India: Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh*](https://books.google.com/books?id=o0ISjDDWJwQC&pg=PA7). New Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7099-874-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7099-874-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bhattacherje2009_88-0)** S. B. Bhattacherje (1 May 2009). [*Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates*](https://books.google.com/books?id=oGVSvXuCsyUC). Vol. A15. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-207-4074-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-207-4074-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pruthi2004_89-0)** R.K. Pruthi (2004). [*The Classical Age*](https://books.google.com/books?id=g3cEERlSo4wC). New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. p. 262. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7141-876-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7141-876-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ojha2001_90-0)** N. K. Ojha (2001). [*The Aulikaras of Central India: history and inscriptions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qlZuAAAAMAAJ). Chandigarh: Arun Pub. House. pp. 48–50. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-85212-78-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85212-78-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sharma1978_91-0)** Tej Ram Sharma (1978). [*Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions*](https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft). Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. p. [232](https://archive.org/details/personalgeograph00sharuoft/page/232). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [923058151](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/923058151). GGKEY:RYD56P78DL9.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** Hsüan-tsang, ca 596-664; Beal, Samuel (1884). [*Si-yu-ki, Buddhist records of the Western world;*](https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsuoft). London : Trübner. p. [167](https://archive.org/details/siyukibuddhistre01hsuoft/page/167).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list)) CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-PM_93-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-PM_93-1) ["Sondhni pillars: where Punjabis met with their Waterloo 1500 years ago"](http://www.punjabmonitor.com/2013/04/sondhni-pillars-where-punjabis-met-with.html). *Punjab Monitor*. Amritsar: Bhai Nand Lal Foundation. 27 April 2013. Retrieved 8 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** The "h" () is an early variant of the Gupta script. Rev: Dotted border around Fire altar flanked by attendants, a design adopted from [Sasanian coinage](/source/Sasanian_coinage).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** Verma, Thakur Prasad (2018). [*The Imperial Maukharis: History of Imperial Maukharis of Kanauj and Harshavardhana*](https://books.google.com/books?id=09FqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT264) (in Hindi). Notion Press. p. 264. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781643248813](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781643248813).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** Sircar, D. C. (2008). [*Studies in Indian Coins*](https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA376). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 376. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788120829732](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120829732).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** Tandon, Pankaj (2013). [*Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society, No. 216, Summer*](http://coinindia.com/galleries-alchon-early.html). Oriental Numismatic Society. pp. 24–34. also [Coinindia Alchon Coins (for an exact description of this coin type)](http://coinindia.com/galleries-toramana.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Fleet1888_100-0)** John Faithfull Fleet (1888). John Faithfull Fleet (ed.). [*Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum: Inscriptions of the early Gupta kings and their successors*](https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.108395/2015.108395.Corpus-Inscriptionum-Indicarum-Vol3-inscriptions-Of-The-Early-Gupta-Kings_djvu.txt). Vol. 3. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Print. pp. 147–148. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [69001098](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/69001098). Archived from [the original](https://books.google.com/books?id=HON9OAAACAAJ) on 1 July 2015.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Kailash_101-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Kailash_101-1) Kailash Chand Jain (31 December 1972). [*Malwa Through The Ages*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA249). Dewlhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 249. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0824-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0824-9).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Eraly_102-6) Abraham Eraly (2011). [*The First Spring: The Golden Age of India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C). New Delhi: Penguin Books India. p. 48. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-670-08478-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-08478-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Agrawal1989_103-0)** Ashvini Agrawal (1989). [*Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hRjC5IaJ2zcC&pg=PA245). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 245. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0592-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0592-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MG145_104-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MG145_104-1) GHOSE, MADHUVANTI (2003). ["The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 145–146. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049312](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** Madan, A. P. (1990). [*The History of the Rāṣṭrakūṭas*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Kr1AAAAAMAAJ). Harman Publishing House. p. 208. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-85151-38-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85151-38-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-106)** Willis, Michael (2005). ["Later Gupta History: Inscriptions, Coins and Historical Ideology"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188529). *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society*. **15** (2): 140 and 149. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1356-1863](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1356-1863). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [25188529](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25188529).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-HCCC169_107-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-HCCC169_107-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-HCCC169_107-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-HCCC169_107-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-HCCC169_107-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-HCCC169_107-5) Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (1996). [*History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA169). UNESCO. p. 169. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789231032110](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789231032110).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-TH58_108-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-TH58_108-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-TH58_108-2) [Kim, Hyun Jin](/source/Hyun_Jin_Kim) (2015). [*The Huns*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58). Routledge. p. 58. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781317340911](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317340911).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MAS_1989_109-0)** [M. A. Stein](/source/Marc_Aurel_Stein) (1989). [*Kalhana's Rajatarangini: a chronicle of the kings of Kasmir*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KzxTkI9iAxkC&pg=PA439). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 439–441. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0370-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0370-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HC170_110-0)** Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (1996). [*History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA170). UNESCO. p. 170. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789231032110](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789231032110).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** PAL, PRATAPADITYA (1973). ["Bronzes of Kashmir: Their Sources and Influences"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41371150). *Journal of the Royal Society of Arts*. **121** (5207): 727. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0035-9114](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0035-9114). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [41371150](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41371150). Before the Karkotas came to the throne, Kashmir may have been occupied by a long succession of foreign rulers or tribes. Certainly both the Kushänas and the Huns were present in the area for centuries. Indeed, the history of Kashmir begins to take shape only with the foundation of the Karkota dynasty around AD 625. The immediate predecessors of the Karkotas appear to have been Huns...

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** [Kim, Hyun Jin](/source/Hyun_Jin_Kim) (19 November 2015). ["THE HUNS OF CENTRAL ASIA AND SOUTH ASIA: THE KIDARITE AND HEPHTHALITE WHITE HUNS"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211125135448/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315661704-11/huns-central-asia-south-asia-kidarite-hephthalite-white-huns-hyun-jin-kim). *The Huns*. Routledge. p. 58. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9781315661704](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315661704). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-34090-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34090-4). Archived from [the original](https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315661704-11/huns-central-asia-south-asia-kidarite-hephthalite-white-huns-hyun-jin-kim) on 25 November 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** Kumar, Raj (2008). [*History Of The Chamar Dynasty : (From 6Th Century A.D. To 12Th Century A.D.)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eEJ-sXBmBIkC&pg=PA318). Gyan Publishing House. pp. 318–319. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7835-635-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7835-635-8). But the name of Toramana is found on a species of Kashmir copper coins of which remarkably large quantities have been preserved to this day . The connection of this coinage with Kalhana's notice cannot be doubted.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** Cribb, Joe (1 April 2017). ["Early Medieval Kashmir Coinage – A New Hoard and An Anomaly"](https://www.academia.edu/32663187). *Numismatic Digest*. **40**: 99. It seems very likely therefore that the rulers of Kashmir at this period were descendants of the Hun kings who ruled large parts of northwestern India from the mid-4th to the 6th century"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** Alram, Michael (2014a). ["From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198). *The Numismatic Chronicle*. **174**: 278. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0078-2696](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0078-2696). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [44710198](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44710198).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-cngcoins.com_116-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-cngcoins.com_116-1) ["CNG: eAuction 369. HUNNIC TRIBES, "Alkhan–Nezak Crossover". Circa 580/90–650/80. Æ Hemidrachm (23mm, 3.10 g, 1h)"](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=305767). *www.cngcoins.com*. Retrieved 2 April 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Sen1999_117-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Sen1999_117-1) Sailendra Nath Sen (1999). [*Ancient Indian History and Civilization*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC). New Delhi: New Age International. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-224-1198-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-224-1198-0).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Vondrovec2014_118-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Vondrovec2014_118-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Vondrovec2014_118-2) Klaus Vondrovec (2014). [*Coinage of the Iranian Huns and Their Successors from Bactria to Gandhara (4th to 8th Century CE)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek6_jgEACAAJ). Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-7001-7695-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-7695-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HC370_119-0)** "The definitive annexation of Tokharistan and Gandhara to the Western Türk Empire was to take place some years later, in c. 625, when Sasanian Iran became involved in the war against Byzantium that ultimately led to its eclipse." in Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (January 1996). [*History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750*](https://books.google.com/books?id=883OZBe2sMYC&pg=PA370). UNESCO. pp. 370–375. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-3-103211-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-3-103211-0).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Vaissiere2007_120-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Vaissiere2007_120-1) de la Vaissiere, Etienne (2007). ["A Note on the Schøyen Copper Scroll: Bactrian or Indian?"](https://ja.scribd.com/document/346304237/A-Note-on-the-Schoyen-copper-scroll-Bact-pdf) (PDF). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **21**: 127. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [i24047314](https://www.jstor.org/stable/i24047314). Retrieved 8 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** Errington, Elizabeth (2017). [*Charles Masson and the Buddhist Sites of Afghanistan: Explorations, Excavations, Collections 1832–1835*](https://zenodo.org/record/3355036). British Museum. p. 34. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5281/zenodo.3355036](https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.3355036).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. ["The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 7. ALKHAN: KING KHINGILA AND THE CONSOLIDATION OF HUNNIC POWER IN NORTHWEST INDIA"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170716204739/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase7?language=en). *Pro.geo.univie.ac.at*. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Archived from [the original](http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase7?language=en) on 16 July 2017. Retrieved 16 July 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rene_123-0)** René Grousset (1970). [*The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia*](https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou). New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. [71](https://archive.org/details/empireofsteppes00grou/page/71). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8135-1304-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-1304-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-kurt_124-0)** Behrendt, Kurt A. (2004). *Handbuch der Orientalistik*. Leiden: BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004135956](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004135956).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HeirmanBumbacher2007_125-0)** Ann Heirman; Stephan Peter Bumbacher (11 May 2007). [*The Spread of Buddhism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NuOvCQAAQBAJ). Leiden: BRILL. p. 60. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-474-2006-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-2006-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Singh_126-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Singh_126-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Singh_126-2) Upinder Singh (2008). [*A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC). Delhi: Pearson Education India. p. 521. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-317-1120-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-sankalia_127-0)** [Sankalia, Hasmukhlal Dhirajlal](/source/Hasmukh_Dhirajlal_Sankalia) (1934). [*The University of Nālandā*](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.24898). Madras: B. G. Paul & co. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [988183829](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/988183829).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-sdutt_128-0)** Sukumar Dutt (1988) [First published in 1962]. [*Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture*](https://books.google.com/books?id=lxRHYFd0fB4C). London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [81-208-0498-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0498-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Melton2014_129-0)** J. Gordon Melton (15 January 2014). [*Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History: 5,000 Years of Religious History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ). Vol. 1. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 455. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-61069-026-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-026-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** Göbl, Robert (1967). [*Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5lpNHxfbKIEC&pg=PA90) (in German). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 90, Em. 91.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** Alram *Alchon und Nēzak: Zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Mittelasien*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sagar1992_132-0)** Krishna Chandra Sagar (1992). [*Foreign Influence on Ancient India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0UA4rkm9MgkC). New Delhi: Northern Book Centre. p. 270. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7211-028-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7211-028-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Joshi1987_133-0)** Lal Mani Joshi (1987). [*Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India During the Seventh and Eighth Centuries A.D.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-epU7NHNCOQC) Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 320. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0281-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0281-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-134)** "He is credited with the building of the temple named Jyeshteswara on the Gopa (Sankaracharya) hill in Srinagar" in Bamzai, Prithivi Nath Kaul (1980). [*Kashmir and Central Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=COgeAAAAMAAJ). Light & Life Publishers. p. 63.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017112_135-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), p. 112.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). [*A Historical atlas of South Asia*](https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 145, map XIV.1 (i). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0226742210](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226742210). Archived from [the original](https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182) on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202093,_98-99_137-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202093,_98-99_137-1) [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 93, 98-99.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-HP_138-0)** Parmentier, Henri (1930). ["J. Ph. Vogel : La sculpture de Mathurâ"](https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_1930_num_30_1_3215). *Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient*. **30** (1): 457.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** [*A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC). New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1 December 2003. p. 174. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-207-2503-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-207-2503-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ME_140-0)** Eder, Manfred A. J. (2010). [*South Asian Archaeology 2007 Proceedings of the 19th Meeting of the European Association of South Asian Archaeology in Ravenna, Italy, July 2007, Volume II*](http://history.chess.free.fr/papers/Eder%202007-2.pdf) (PDF). Archaeopress Archaeology. p. 69. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4073-0674-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0674-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** [Bakker, Hans T.](/source/Hans_T._Bakker) (2017). [*The Huns in Central and South Asia. How Two Centuries of War against Nomadic Invaders from the Steps are Concluded by a Game of Chess between the Kings of India and Iran*](https://www.academia.edu/34156496).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** GHOSE, MADHUVANTI (2003). ["The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 153, Fig.13. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049312](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MG_143-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MG_143-1) GHOSE, MADHUVANTI (2003). ["The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 145–158. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049312](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** GHOSE, MADHUVANTI (2003). ["The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 151, Fig.10. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049312](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** GHOSE, MADHUVANTI (2003). ["The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 150, Fig.9. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049312](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-146)** GHOSE, MADHUVANTI (2003). ["The Impact of the Hun Invasions: A Nomadic Interlude in Indian Art"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **17**: 150, Fig.6. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24049312](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24049312).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Gray_147-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Gray_147-1) GRAY, BASIL (1991). ["Post-Sasanian Metalwork"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24048285). *Bulletin of the Asia Institute*. **5**: 61. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0890-4464](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0890-4464). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [24048285](https://www.jstor.org/stable/24048285).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BB_148-0)** Brentjes, B. (1971). ["The Hoard of Hephthalite Silver Vessels Found near Samarkand"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/29755649). *East and West*. **21** (1/2): 77–78. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0012-8376](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-8376). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [29755649](https://www.jstor.org/stable/29755649).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** Kurbanov, Aydogdy (2014). ["The hephthalites: iconographical materials"](http://oaji.net/articles/2017/4586-1488311404.pdf) (PDF). *Tyragetia*. VIII [XXIII]: 328.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBakker202024_150-0)** [Bakker 2020](#CITEREFBakker2020), p. 24.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-HPR_151-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-HPR_151-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-HPR_151-2) Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2019). [*Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qkyfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT162). Taylor & Francis. pp. 161–165. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781000227932](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000227932).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuri19572_152-0)** [Puri 1957](#CITEREFPuri1957), p. 2.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-HJK_153-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-HJK_153-1) [Kim, Hyun Jin](/source/Hyun_Jin_Kim) (19 November 2015). [*The Huns*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bnv4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62). Routledge. pp. 62–64. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-34091-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34091-1). Although it is not certain, it also seems likely that the formidable Gurjara Pratihara regime (ruled from the seventh-eleventh centuries AD) of northern India, had a powerful [White Hunnic](/source/Hephthalite) element. The Gurjara Pratiharas who were likely created from a fusion of White Hunnic and native Indian elements, ruled a vast Empire in northern India, and they also halted Arab Muslim expansion in India through Sind for centuries.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-154)** Wink, André (1991). [*Al-hind: The Making of the Indo-islamic World*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA279). BRILL. p. 279. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-09249-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-09249-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** *History of Civilizations of Central Asia*. UNESCO. 2006. p. 178. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9231032110](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9231032110).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Göbl1967_156-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Göbl1967_156-1) Robert Göbl (1967). [*Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5lpNHxfbKIEC). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [2561645](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2561645). GGKEY:4TALPN86ZJB.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Meizer2000_157-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Meizer2000_157-1) Gudrun Melzer; Lore Sander (2000). Jens Braarvig (ed.). [*A Copper Scroll Inscription from the Time of the Alchon Huns*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KTDYAAAAMAAJ). Buddhist manuscripts. Vol. 3. Oslo: Hermes Pub. pp. 251–278. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788280340061](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788280340061).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** Tandon, Pankaj (2013). [*Notes on the Evolution of Alchon Coins Journal of the Oriental Numismatic Society, No. 216, Summer*](http://coinindia.com/galleries-alchon-early.html). Oriental Numismatic Society. pp. 24–34. also [Coinindia Alchon Coins (for an exact description of this coin type)](http://coinindia.com/galleries-alchon-early.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tandon2015_161-0)** Tandon, Pankaj (2015). ["The Identity of Prakasaditya"](http://coinindia.com/Prakasaditya.pdf) (PDF). *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society*. **25** (4): 647–668. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1356186315000346](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1356186315000346). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2144/37851](https://hdl.handle.net/2144%2F37851). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [43869990](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43869990). Retrieved 8 July 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** Smith, Vincent Arthur; [Edwardes, Stephen Meredyth](/source/Stephen_Edwardes) (1924). [*The early history of India : from 600 B.C. to the Muhammadan conquest, including the invasion of Alexander the Great*](https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofi00smit/page/76). Oxford : Clarendon Press. p. Plate 2.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERezakhani2017199_163-0)** [Rezakhani 2017](#CITEREFRezakhani2017), pp. 199.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-164)** [CNG Coins](https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=114833)

## Sources

- Alemanny, Austí (2000). *Sources on the Alans: A Critical Compilation*. Brill. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-11442-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11442-5).

- [Puri, Baij Nath](/source/Baij_Nath_Puri) (1957), [*The history of the Gurjara-Pratihāras*](https://books.google.com/books?id=szkhAAAAMAAJ), [Munshiram Manoharlal](/source/Munshiram_Manoharlal)

- Bakker, Hans T. (2020). *The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia*. Barkhuis. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctv13nb6sv](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv13nb6sv). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-93194-00-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-93194-00-7). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv13nb6sv](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv13nb6sv).

- Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017). *ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity*. Edinburgh University Press. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9781474400305](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781474400305). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4744-0030-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-0030-5).

- Schindel, Nikolaus (2006). *The Sasanian Eastern Wars in the 5th Century. The Numismatic Evidence*. Milan.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

- Schottky, Martin (2004). "Huns". [*Encyclopaedia Iranica*](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/huns).

- Vondrovec, Klaus (2005). *Die Anonymen Clanchefs* (in German).

## External links

Media related to [Alchon Huns](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Alchon_Huns) at Wikimedia Commons

- [Nezak Kings in Zabulistan and Kabulistan](http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase11?language=en) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200726181417/http://pro.geo.univie.ac.at/projects/khm/showcases/showcase11?language=en) 26 July 2020 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Coin Cabinet of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna

- [Coinage of the Hephthalites/ Alchons](http://grifterrec.rasmir.com/huns/huns.html), Grifterrec

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