# Afrikaans

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For white Afrikaans speakers, see [Afrikaners](/source/Afrikaners).

Not to be confused with [Africans](/source/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa).

**Afrikaans**["n" 1] is a [West Germanic language](/source/West_Germanic_languages) spoken in [South Africa](/source/South_Africa), [Namibia](/source/Namibia), and to a lesser extent [Botswana](/source/Botswana), [Zambia](/source/Zambia), [Zimbabwe](/source/Zimbabwe), and also [Argentina](/source/Argentina), where a group in [Sarmiento](/source/Sarmiento,_Chubut) speaks a [Patagonian dialect](/source/Patagonian_Afrikaans). It evolved from the [Dutch vernacular](/source/Dutch_language)[2][3] of [South Holland](/source/South_Holland) ([Hollandic dialect](/source/Hollandic_dialect))[4][5] spoken by the [predominantly Dutch settlers](/source/Free_Burghers_in_the_Dutch_Cape_Colony) and [enslaved population](/source/Slavery_in_South_Africa#Dutch_rule) of the [Dutch Cape Colony](/source/Dutch_Cape_Colony), where in the 17th and 18th centuries it gradually developed characteristics that distinguish it from Dutch.[6]

Although Afrikaans has adopted words from other languages, including [German](/source/German_language), [Malay](/source/Malay_language), and [Khoisan languages](/source/Khoisan_languages), an estimated 90 to 95% of its vocabulary is of Dutch origin.["n" 2] [Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch](/source/Differences_between_Afrikaans_and_Dutch) often lie in the more [analytic](/source/Analytic_language) [morphology](/source/Morphology_(linguistics)) and grammar of Afrikaans, and different spellings.["n" 3] There is a large degree of [mutual intelligibility](/source/Mutual_intelligibility) between the two languages, especially in [written form](#Orthography).[7]

## Etymology

The language's name comes directly from the Dutch word *Afrikaansch* (now spelled *Afrikaans*)["n" 4] meaning 'African'.[8] It was previously called 'Cape Dutch' (*Kaap-Hollands* or *Kaap-Nederlands*), a term also used to refer to the [early Cape settlers](/source/Cape_Dutch) collectively, or the derogatory 'kitchen Dutch' (*kombuistaal*) from its use by slaves of colonial settlers "in the kitchen".

## History

### Origin

The Afrikaans language arose in the [Dutch Cape Colony](/source/Dutch_Cape_Colony) through a gradual divergence from European [Dutch dialects](/source/Dutch_dialects) during the 18th century.[9][10] As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the early-20th century, many in Southern Africa viewed pre-standardized Afrikaans as 'kitchen Dutch' (Afrikaans: *kombuistaal*), lacking the prestige accorded an officially recognised language like standard Dutch and English. In the 19th-century Boer republics, proto-Afrikaans was not yet widely seen by the Afrikaner population or its leaders as a separate language from standard Dutch. Dutch was expressly the sole and only legally recognised language at that time. Other early epithets in Southern Africa setting apart *Kaaps Hollands* ('[Cape Dutch](/source/Cape_Dutch)', i.e. Proto-Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch language standards included *geradbraakt*, *gebroken* and *onbeschaafd Hollands* (respectively 'mutilated', 'broken', and 'uncivilised Dutch'), as well as *verkeerd Nederlands* ('incorrect Dutch').[11][12]

Historical linguist Hans den Besten theorises that modern Standard Afrikaans derives from two sources:[13]

- [Cape Dutch](/source/Cape_Dutch), a direct transplantation of European Dutch to Southern Africa, and
- 'Hottentot Dutch',[14] a [pidgin](/source/Pidgin) that descended from 'Foreigner Talk' and ultimately from the Dutch [pidgin](/source/Pidgin) spoken by slaves, via hypothetical [Dutch-based creole languages](/source/Dutch-based_creole_languages).

So Afrikaans, in his view, is neither a creole nor a direct descendant of Dutch, but a fusion of two transmission pathways.

### Development

Most of the first [settlers](/source/Free_Burghers) whose descendants today are the [Afrikaners](/source/Afrikaner) were from the [United Provinces](/source/Republic_of_the_Seven_United_Provinces_of_the_Netherlands) (now Netherlands),[15] with up to one-sixth of the community of French [Huguenot](/source/Huguenot) origin, and a seventh from Germany.[16]

African and Asian workers, [Cape Coloured](/source/Cape_Coloureds) children of European settlers and [Khoikhoi](/source/Khoekhoe) women,[17] and slaves contributed to the development of Afrikaans. The slave population comprised people from East Africa, West Africa, [Mughal India](/source/Mughal_Empire), [Madagascar](/source/Merina_Kingdom), and the [Dutch East Indies](/source/Dutch_East_Indies) (modern Indonesia).[18] Many were also indigenous [Khoisan](/source/Khoisan) people, who were valued as interpreters, domestic servants, and labourers. Many free and enslaved women married or cohabited with male Dutch settlers. M. F. Valkhoff argued that 75% of children born to female slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had a Dutch father.[19] Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman argue that Afrikaans' development as a separate language was "heavily conditioned by nonwhites who learned Dutch imperfectly as a second language."[20]

Beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace [Malay](/source/Malay_language) as the language of instruction in [Muslim schools](/source/Madrasa) in South Africa, written in [Arabic Afrikaans](/source/Arabic_Afrikaans). Later, Afrikaans, now written with the [Latin script](/source/Latin_script), started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850 (alongside the already established Dutch).[9]

In 1875 a group of Afrikaans-speakers from the Cape formed the *[Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaaners](/source/Genootskap_van_Regte_Afrikaners)* ('Society for Real Afrikaners'),[9] and published a number of books in Afrikaans, including grammars, dictionaries, religious materials, and histories.

Until the early 20th century Afrikaans was considered a [Dutch dialect](/source/Dutch_dialect), alongside [Standard Dutch](/source/Standard_Dutch), which it eventually replaced as an official language.[7] Before the [Boer wars](/source/Boer_wars), "and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as 'a kitchen language' or 'a bastard jargon', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants."[21][better source needed]

### Recognition

In 1925 Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a distinct language rather than simply a vernacular of Dutch.[9] On 8 May 1925, 23 years after the [Second Boer War](/source/Second_Boer_War) ended,[21] the [Official Languages of the Union Act, 1925](/source/Official_Languages_of_the_Union_Act,_1925) was passed—mostly due to the efforts of the [Afrikaans language movement](/source/Afrikaans_language_movement)—at a joint sitting of the [House of Assembly](/source/House_of_Assembly_(South_Africa)) and the [Senate](/source/Senate_of_South_Africa), in which the Afrikaans language was declared a variety of Dutch.[22] The [Constitution of 1961](/source/South_African_Constitution_of_1961) reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. The [Constitution of 1983](/source/South_African_Constitution_of_1983) removed any mention of Dutch altogether.

The [Afrikaans Language Monument](/source/Afrikaans_Language_Monument) is on a hill overlooking [Paarl](/source/Paarl) in the [Western Cape Province](/source/Western_Cape_Province). Officially opened on 10 October 1975,[23] it was erected on the 100th anniversary of the founding of the [Society of Real Afrikaners](/source/Society_of_Real_Afrikaners),[24] and the 50th anniversary of Afrikaans being declared an official language of South Africa in distinction to Dutch.

### Standardisation

The earliest Afrikaans texts were some [doggerel verses](/source/Doggerel) from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Afrikaans used the Latin alphabet around this time, although the [Cape Muslim](/source/Cape_Malays) community used the Arabic script. In 1861, L. H. Meurant published his *Zamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar* (*Conversation between Nicholas Truthsayer and John Doubter*), which is considered the first book published in Afrikaans.[25]

The first grammar book was published in 1876; a bilingual dictionary was published in 1902. The main modern Afrikaans dictionary in use is the *[Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal](/source/Verklarende_Handwoordeboek_van_die_Afrikaanse_Taal)* (HAT). A new authoritative dictionary, *[Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal](/source/Woordeboek_van_die_Afrikaanse_Taal)* (WAT), was under development As of 2018 . The official [orthography](/source/Orthography) of Afrikaans is the *Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls*, compiled by *[Die Taalkommissie](/source/Die_Taalkommissie)*.[25]

### The Afrikaans Bible

Main article: [Bible translations into Afrikaans](/source/Bible_translations_into_Afrikaans)

The Afrikaners primarily were Protestants, of the [Dutch Reformed Church](/source/Dutch_Reformed_Church) of the 17th century. Their religious practices were later influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s.[26] A landmark in the language's development was the translation of the Bible into Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in the [textual criticism](/source/Textual_criticism) of the Bible, especially the Greek [New Testament](/source/New_Testament), the 1933 translation followed the [Textus Receptus](/source/Textus_Receptus) and was closely akin to the *[Statenbijbel](/source/Statenbijbel)*. Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch *[Statenbijbel](/source/Statenbijbel)*. This *[Statenvertaling](/source/Statenvertaling)* had its origins with the [Synod of Dordrecht](/source/Synod_of_Dordrecht) of 1618 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.

C. P. Hoogehout, [Arnoldus Pannevis](/source/Arnoldus_Pannevis), and [Stephanus Jacobus du Toit](/source/Stephanus_Jacobus_du_Toit) were the first [Afrikaans Bible](/source/Bible_translations_(Afrikaans)) translators. An important landmark in the translation of the Scriptures as C. P. Hoogehout's 1878 translation of the *Evangelie volgens Markus* ([Gospel of Mark](/source/Gospel_of_Mark), lit. 'Gospel according to Mark'), but it was never published. The manuscript is in the South African National Library, Cape Town.

The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by [J. D. du Toit](/source/Totius_(poet)), E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and [BB Keet](/source/BB_Keet).[27][28] This monumental work established Afrikaans as *'n suiwer en ordentlike taal*—"a pure and proper language" for religious purposes, especially among the deeply [Calvinist](/source/Calvinist) Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of a [Bible translation](/source/Bible_translation) that varied from the Dutch version they were used to.

In 1983 a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version. It was edited by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg and W. Kempen. It was influenced by [Eugene Nida](/source/Eugene_Nida)'s theory of [dynamic equivalence](/source/Dynamic_and_formal_equivalence), which focused on finding the nearest equivalent in the receptor language to the idea that the Greek, Hebrew, or Aramaic conveyed.

A new translation, *Die Bybel: 'n Direkte Vertaling* was released in November 2020. It is the first truly [ecumenical](/source/Ecumenism) translation of the Bible in Afrikaans as translators from various churches, including the [Roman Catholic](/source/Roman_Catholic) and [Anglican](/source/Anglican) Churches, were involved.[29]

### Classification

- [Indo-European languages](/source/Indo-European_languages) - [Germanic](/source/Germanic_languages) - [West Germanic](/source/West_Germanic_languages) - [Low Franconian](/source/Low_Franconian_languages) - [Dutch](/source/Dutch_language) - Afrikaans

Afrikaans descended from Dutch dialects in the 17th century. It belongs to a [West Germanic](/source/West_Germanic_languages) sub-group, the [Low Franconian languages](/source/Low_Franconian_languages).[30] Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans are German, English, the [Frisian languages](/source/Frisian_languages), [Yiddish](/source/Yiddish), and the unstandardised language [Low German](/source/Low_German).

## Geographic distribution

### Statistics

Country Speakers Percentage of speakers Year Reference South Africa 6,855,082 94.71% 2011 [citation needed] Namibia 219,760 3.04% 2011 [citation needed] Australia 49,375 0.68% 2021 [31] New Zealand 36,966 0.51% 2018 [32] Canada 29,670 0.41% 2021 [33] United States 28,406 0.39% 2016 [34] Botswana 8,082 0.11% 2011 [citation needed] United Kingdom 7,489 0.10% 2021 [35] Pakistan 2,228 0.03% 2016 [citation needed] Argentina 650 0.01% 2019 [36] Finland 150 0.002% 2023 [37] Mauritius 36 0.0005% 2011 [citation needed] Total 7,237,894

### Sociolinguistics

Besides South-Africa, Afrikaans is also widely spoken in [Namibia](/source/Namibia). Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language.[38][39] There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among [Zimbabwe](/source/Zimbabwe)'s white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools in [Bophuthatswana](/source/Bophuthatswana), an Apartheid-era [Bantustan](/source/Bantustan).[40] [Eldoret](/source/Eldoret), [Kenya](/source/Kenya), was founded by Afrikaners.[41]

There are also around 30,000 [South Africans in the Netherlands](/source/South_Africans_in_the_Netherlands), of which the majority are of Afrikaans-speaking Afrikaner and Coloured South-African descent.[42] A much smaller and unknown number of Afrikaans speakers also reside in the [Dutch Caribbean](/source/Dutch_Caribbean).

Contrary to popular belief, the majority of Afrikaans speakers today are not [Afrikaners](/source/Afrikaners) or [Boers](/source/Boers), but [Coloureds](/source/Coloureds).[43]

In 1976, secondary-school pupils in [Soweto](/source/Soweto) began [a rebellion](/source/Soweto_riots) in response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). Although [English](/source/South_African_English) is the [mother tongue](/source/First_language) of only 8.2% of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the [second language](/source/Second_language) of a majority of South Africans.[44] Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto. The Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction.[45] Afrikaans-medium schools were also accused of using language policy to deter Black African parents.[46] Some of these parents, in part supported by provincial departments of education, initiated litigation which enabled enrolment with English as language of instruction. By 2006 there were 300 single-medium Afrikaans schools, compared to 2,500 in 1994, after most converted to dual-medium education.[46] Due to Afrikaans being viewed as the "language of the white oppressor" by some, pressure has been increased to remove Afrikaans as a teaching language in South African universities, resulting in bloody student protests in 2015.[47][48][49]

Under [South Africa's Constitution](/source/Constitution_of_South_Africa) of 1996, Afrikaans remains an [official language](/source/Languages_of_South_Africa), and has equal status to English and ten other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the [South African Broadcasting Corporation](/source/South_African_Broadcasting_Corporation) reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while [South African Airways](/source/South_African_Airways) dropped its Afrikaans name *Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens* from its [livery](/source/Livery). Similarly, South Africa's [diplomatic missions](/source/Diplomatic_mission) overseas now display the name of the country only in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans. Meanwhile, the [constitution of the Western Cape](/source/Constitution_of_the_Western_Cape), which went into effect in 1998, declares Afrikaans to be an official language of the province alongside English and [Xhosa](/source/Xhosa_language).[50]

The Afrikaans-language general-interest family magazine *[Huisgenoot](/source/Huisgenoot)* has the largest readership of any magazine in the country.[51]

When the British design magazine *[Wallpaper](/source/Wallpaper_(magazine))* described Afrikaans as "one of the world's ugliest languages" in its September 2005 article about the [monument](/source/Afrikaans_Language_Monument),[52] South African billionaire [Johann Rupert](/source/Johann_Rupert) (chairman of the [Richemont Group](/source/Richemont)), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as [Cartier](/source/Cartier_SA), [Van Cleef & Arpels](/source/Van_Cleef_%26_Arpels), [Montblanc](/source/Montblanc_(pens)) and [Alfred Dunhill](/source/Alfred_Dunhill) from the magazine.[53] The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was an [English](/source/South_African_English)-speaking South African.

### Mutual intelligibility with Dutch

Main article: [Comparison of Afrikaans and Dutch](/source/Comparison_of_Afrikaans_and_Dutch)

An estimated 90 to 95 percent of the Afrikaans lexicon is ultimately of Dutch origin,[54][55][56] and there are few lexical differences between the two languages.[57] Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology,[58] grammar, and spelling.[59] There is a high degree of [mutual intelligibility](/source/Mutual_intelligibility) between the two languages,[60][61] particularly in written form.[59][62][63]

Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such as [Malay](/source/Malay_language), [Khoisan languages](/source/Khoisan_languages), Portuguese,[64] German and [Bantu languages](/source/Bantu_languages).[65] Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced by [South African English](/source/South_African_English), especially in the Western Cape.[66] Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round.[67] Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.[68]

In general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is far better than between Dutch and [Frisian](/source/West_Frisian_language)[69] or [between](/source/North_Germanic_languages#Mutual_intelligibility) Danish and [Swedish](/source/Swedish_language).[70] The South African poet writer [Breyten Breytenbach](/source/Breyten_Breytenbach), attempting to visualise the language distance for [Anglophones](/source/English-speaking_world), once remarked that the differences between (Standard) Dutch and Afrikaans are comparable to those between the [Received Pronunciation](/source/Received_Pronunciation) and [Southern American English](/source/Southern_American_English).[71]

## Current status

Use of Afrikaans as a first language by province Province 1996[72] 2001[72] 2011[72] 2022[73] Western Cape 58.5% 55.3% 49.7% 41.2% Eastern Cape 9.8% 9.6% 10.6% 9.6% Northern Cape 57.2% 56.6% 53.8% 54.6% Free State 14.4% 11.9% 12.7% 10.3% KwaZulu-Natal 1.6% 1.5% 1.6% 1.0% North West 8.8% 8.8% 9.0% 5.2% Gauteng 15.6% 13.6% 12.4% 7.7% Mpumalanga 7.1% 5.5% 7.2% 3.2% Limpopo 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.3% South Africa 14.4%[74] 13.3%[75] 13.5%[76] 10.6%[73]

Afrikaans is an official language of the Republic of South Africa and a recognised national language of the Republic of Namibia. [Post-apartheid South Africa](/source/Post-apartheid_South_Africa) has seen a loss of preferential treatment by the government for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events, [media](/source/Mass_media_in_South_Africa) (TV and radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media – radio, newspapers and television[77] – than any of the other official languages except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually.[78] South African census figures suggest a decreasing number of first language Afrikaans speakers in South Africa from 13.5% in 2011 to 10.6% in 2022.[73] The [South African Institute of Race Relations](/source/South_African_Institute_of_Race_Relations) (SAIRR) projects that a growing majority of Afrikaans speakers will be [Coloured](/source/Coloured).[79] Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though as of 2012 half a million were unemployed.[80]

Despite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular in [DSTV](/source/DSTV) pay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans-speaking emigrant communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.

Afrikaans-language cinema showed signs of new vigour in the early 21st century. The 2007 film *Ouma se slim kind*, the first full-length Afrikaans movie since *[Paljas](/source/Paljas)* in 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature-length movies, such as *[Poena Is Koning](/source/Poena_Is_Koning)* and *[Bakgat](/source/Bakgat)* (both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans-language film *[Skoonheid](/source/Skoonheid)*, which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at the [Cannes Film Festival](/source/Cannes_Film_Festival). The film *Platteland* was also released in 2011.[81] The Afrikaans film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, like [Charlize Theron](/source/Charlize_Theron) (*[Monster](/source/Monster_(2003_film))*) and [Sharlto Copley](/source/Sharlto_Copley) (*[District 9](/source/District_9)*) promoting their mother tongue.

[SABC 3](/source/SABC_3) announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the "growing Afrikaans-language market and [their] need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the current [South African television](/source/Television_in_South_Africa) market". In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans-language programmes.[82] There is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4% (2001 Census) to 10.4% (2011 Census). The major concentrations are in [Hardap](/source/Hardap_Region) (41.0%), [ǁKaras](/source/%C7%81Karas_Region) (36.1%), [Erongo](/source/Erongo_Region) (20.5%), [Khomas](/source/Khomas_Region) (18.5%), [Omaheke](/source/Omaheke_Region) (10.0%), [Otjozondjupa](/source/Otjozondjupa_Region) (9.4%), [Kunene](/source/Kunene_Region) (4.2%), and [Oshikoto](/source/Oshikoto_Region) (2.3%).[83]

Some native speakers of Bantu languages and [English](/source/South_African_English) also speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is widely taught in South African schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students.[84]

Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside South Africa, including in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Russia and the United States.[85][86]

## Grammar

Main article: [Afrikaans grammar](/source/Afrikaans_grammar)

In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between the [infinitive](/source/Infinitive) and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have'.[87]

infinitive form present indicative form Dutch English wees is zijn or wezen be hê het hebben have

In addition, verbs do not [conjugate](/source/Grammatical_conjugation) differently depending on the subject. For example,

Afrikaans Dutch English ek is ik ben I am jy/u is jij/u bent you are (sing.) hy/sy/dit is hij/zij/het is he/she/it is ons is wij zijn we are julle is jullie zijn you are (plur.) hulle is zij zijn they are

Only a handful of Afrikaans verbs have a [preterite](/source/Preterite), namely the auxiliary *wees* ('to be'), the [modal verbs](/source/Modal_verbs), and the verb *dink* ('to think').[88] The preterite of *mag* ('may') is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.

Afrikaans Dutch English present past present past present past ek is ek was ik ben ik was I am I was ek kan ek kon ik kan ik kon I can I could ek moet ek moes ik moet ik moest I must (I had to) ek wil ek wou ik wil ik wilde/wou I want to I wanted to ek sal ek sou ik zal ik zou I shall I should ek mag (ek mog) ik mag ik mocht I may I might ek dink ek dog ik denk ik dacht I think I thought

All other verbs use the perfect tense, het + past participle (ge-), for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans between *I drank* and *I have drunk*. (In colloquial German, the past tense is also often replaced with the perfect.)

Afrikaans Dutch English ek het gedrink ik dronk I drank ik heb gedronken I have drunk

When telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, or [historical present tense](/source/Historical_present_tense) instead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).

A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of the [double negative](/source/Double_negative); it is classified in Afrikaans as **ontkennende vorm** and is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example:

- Afrikaans: *Hy kan **nie** Afrikaans praat **nie***, lit. 'He can not Afrikaans speak not'
- Dutch: *Hij spreekt **geen** Afrikaans.*
- English: He can***not*** speak Afrikaans. / He ***can't*** speak Afrikaans.

Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found in [Low Franconian dialects](/source/Low_Franconian) in [West Flanders](/source/West_Flanders) and in some "isolated" villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such as [Garderen](/source/Garderen)), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:

- Afrikaans: *Ek wil nie dit doen nie.** (*lit.* I want not this do not.)
- Dutch: *Ik wil dit niet doen.*
- English: I do not want to do this.

* Compare with *Ek wil dit nie doen nie*, which changes the meaning to 'I want not to do this'. Whereas *Ek wil nie dit doen nie* emphasizes a lack of desire to act, *Ek wil dit nie doen nie* emphasizes the act itself.

The *-ne* was the [Middle Dutch](/source/Middle_Dutch) way to negate but it has been suggested that since *-ne* became highly non-voiced, *nie* or *niet* was needed to complement the *-ne*. With time the *-ne* disappeared in most Dutch dialects.

The double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:

Afrikaans Dutch (literally translated) More correct Dutch Literal English Idiomatic English Ek het (nie) geweet dat hy (nie) sou kom (nie). Ik heb (niet) geweten dat hij (niet) zou komen. Ik wist (niet) dat hij (niet) zou komen. I did (not) know that he would (not) come. I did (not) know that he was (not) going to come. Hy sal nie kom nie, want hy is siek.["n" 5] Hij zal niet komen, want hij is ziek. Hij komt niet, want hij is ziek. He will not come, as he is sick. He is sick and is not going to come. Dis (Dit is) nie so moeilik om Afrikaans te leer nie. Het is niet zo moeilijk (om) Afrikaans te leren. It is not so difficult to learn Afrikaans.

A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the English [present participle](/source/Present_participle). In this case there is only a single negation.

- Afrikaans: *Hy is in die hospitaal, maar hy eet nie.*
- Dutch: *Hij is in het ziekenhuis, maar hij eet niet.*
- English: He is in [the] hospital, though he doesn't eat.

Certain words in Afrikaans would be contracted. For example, *moet nie*, which literally means 'must not', usually becomes *moenie*; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words to *moenie* in the same way as *do not* is contracted to *don't* in English.

The Dutch word *het* ('it' in English) does not correspond to *het* in Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaans *het* are *heb*, *hebt*, *heeft* and *hebben*.

Afrikaans Dutch English het heb, hebt, heeft, hebben have, has die de, het the dit het it

## Phonology

Main article: [Afrikaans phonology](/source/Afrikaans_phonology)

### Vowels

Monophthong phonemes[89][90] Front Central Back unrounded rounded unrounded rounded short long short long short long short long short long Close i (iː) y yː u (uː) Mid ɛ̝ ɛ̝ ə (əː) œ (œː) ɔ̝ (ɔ̝) Near-open (æ) (æː) Open a ɑː

- As phonemes, /iː/ and /uː/ occur only in the words *spieël* /spiːl/ 'mirror' and *koeël* /kuːl/ 'bullet', which used to be pronounced with sequences /i.ə/ and /u.ə/, respectively. In other cases, iː and uː occur as allophones of, respectively, /i/ and /u/ before /r/.[91]
- /y/ is phonetically long yː before /r/.[92]
- /əː/ is always stressed and occurs only in the word *wîe* 'wedges'.[93]
- The closest unrounded counterparts of /œ, œː/ are central /ə, əː/, rather than front /e, eː/.[94]
- /œː, oː/ occur only in a few words.[95]
- æ occurs as an allophone of /e/ before /k, χ, l, r/, though this occurs primarily dialectally, most commonly in the former [Transvaal](/source/Transvaal_Province) and [Free State](/source/Free_State_(South_African_province)) provinces.[96]

#### Diphthongs

Diphthong phonemes[97][98] Starting point Ending point Front Central Back Mid unrounded ɪø, əɪ ɪə rounded œɪ, ɔɪ ʊə œʊ Open unrounded aɪ, ɑːɪ

- /ɔi, ai/ occur mainly in loanwords.[99]

### Consonants

Consonant phonemes Labial Alveolar Post- alveolar Dorsal Glottal Nasal m n ŋ Plosive voiceless p t t͡ʃ k voiced b d (d͡ʒ) (ɡ) Fricative voiceless f s ʃ (ɹ̠̊˔) χ voiced v (z) ʒ ɦ Approximant l j Rhotic r ~ ɾ ~ ʀ ~ ʁ

- All [obstruents](/source/Obstruent) at the ends of words are [devoiced](/source/Final-obstruent_devoicing), so that e.g. a final /d/ is realized as [t].[100]
- /ɡ, dʒ, z/ occur only in loanwords. [ɡ] is also an allophone of /χ/ in some environments.[101]
- /χ/ is most often uvular [ ~ ].[102][103][104] Velar x occurs only in some speakers.[103]
- The rhotic is usually an alveolar trill r or tap ɾ.[105] In some parts of the former [Cape Province](/source/Cape_Province), it is realized uvularly, either as a trill ʀ or a fricative ʁ.[106]

## Dialects

Following early dialectal studies of Afrikaans, it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed after the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape dialects.["n" 6] Northern Cape dialect may have resulted from contact between Dutch settlers and the [Khoekhoe](/source/Khoekhoe) people between the Great Karoo and the Kunene, and Eastern Cape dialect between the Dutch and the Xhosa. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present-day Afrikaans, although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times.[107][better source needed] Oranjerivier-Afrikaans (Orange River Afrikaans) is a major variety, including the Oranjerivier Afrikaans spoken by whites and Griqua Afrikaans spoken by Griqua as well as [Namakwalands](/source/Namakwalands). There is also a prison [cant](/source/Cant_(language)), known as [Sabela](/source/Sabela), which is based on Afrikaans, yet heavily influenced by [Zulu](/source/Zulu_language). This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates.[107]

### Patagonian Afrikaans

Main article: [Patagonian Afrikaans](/source/Patagonian_Afrikaans)

Patagonian Afrikaans is a distinct dialect of Afrikaans that is spoken by the 650-member [South African community](/source/South_African_Argentines) of Argentina, in the region of [Patagonia](/source/Patagonia).[108]

### Namibian Afrikaans

Namibian Afrikaans is a variety of Afrikaans spoken in [Namibia](/source/Namibia). The country was governed by South Africa until 1990, which had favoured Afrikaans. Before that, Dutch had been introduced when the Dutch occupied [Walvis Bay](/source/Walvis_Bay) and the surrounding area.[109]

## Influences on Afrikaans from other languages

### Malay

Due to the early settlement of a [Cape Malay](/source/Cape_Malay) community in [Cape Town](/source/Cape_Town), who are now known as [Coloureds](/source/Coloured), numerous [Classical Malay](/source/History_of_the_Malay_language#Classical_Malay) words were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via people arriving from what is now known as Indonesia as part of their colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:[110]

- ***baie***, which means 'very'/'much'/'many' (from banyak) is a very commonly used Afrikaans word, different from its Dutch equivalent *veel* or *erg*.
- ***baadjie***, Afrikaans for jacket (from baju, ultimately from [Persian](/source/Persian_language)), used where Dutch would use *jas* or *vest*. The word **baadje** in Dutch is now considered archaic and only used in written, literary texts.
- ***[bobotie](/source/Bobotie)***, a traditional Cape-Malay dish, made from spiced [minced meat](/source/Ground_meat) baked with an egg-based topping.
- ***piesang***, which means banana. This is different from the common Dutch word **banaan**. The Indonesian word *pisang* is also used in Dutch, though usage is less common.
- ***piering***, which means [saucer](/source/Saucer) (from piring, also from Persian).
- ***sosatie***, a dish similar to [shish kebab](/source/Shish_kebab).

### Portuguese

Some words originally came from Portuguese such as *sambreel* ('umbrella') from the Portuguese *sombreiro*, *kraal* ('pen/cattle enclosure') from the Portuguese *curral* and *mielie* ('corn', from *milho*). Some of these words also exist in Dutch, like *sambreel* 'parasol',[111] though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.

### Khoisan languages

- ***dagga***, meaning [cannabis](/source/Cannabis)[110]
- ***geitjie***, meaning lizard, diminutive adapted from a [Khoekhoe](/source/Khoekhoe) word[112]
- ***gogga***, meaning insect, from the [Khoisan](/source/Khoisan_languages) *xo-xo*
- ***karos***, blanket of animal hides
- ***kierie***, walking stick from [Khoekhoe](/source/Khoekhoe)[112]

Some of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning: *assegaai* for example means 'South-African tribal javelin'[113] and *karos* means 'South-African tribal blanket of animal hides'.[114]

### Bantu languages

Loanwords from [Bantu languages](/source/Bantu_languages) in Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such as *mahem* and *sakaboela*, and indigenous plants, such as *maroela* and *tamboekie(gras)*.[115]

- ***fundi***, from the [Zulu](/source/Zulu_language) word *umfundi* meaning 'scholar' or 'student"',[116] but used to mean someone who is a student of/expert on a certain subject, i.e. *He is a language *fundi**.
- ***lobola***, meaning bride price, from (and referring to) *[lobolo](/source/Lobolo)* of the [Nguni languages](/source/Nguni_languages)[117]
- ***mahem***, the [grey crowned crane](/source/Grey_crowned_crane), known in Latin as *Balearica regulorum*
- ***maroela***, medium-sized [dioecious](/source/Dioecy) tree known in Latin as *[Sclerocarya birrea](/source/Sclerocarya_birrea)*[118]
- ***tamboekiegras***, species of thatching grass known as *[Hyparrhenia](/source/Hyparrhenia)*[119]
- ***tambotie***, deciduous tree also known by its [Latin](/source/Latin) name, *[Spirostachys africana](/source/Spirostachys_africana)*[120]
- ***tjaila* / *tjailatyd***, an adaption of the word **chaile**, meaning "to go home" or "to knock off (from work)".[121][full citation needed]

### French

The revoking of the [Edict of Nantes](/source/Edict_of_Nantes) on 22 October 1685 was a milestone in the history of South Africa, for it marked the beginning of the great [Huguenot](/source/Huguenots) exodus from France. It is estimated that between 250,000 and 300,000 Protestants left France between 1685 and 1700; out of these, according to [Louvois](/source/Fran%C3%A7ois-Michel_le_Tellier,_Marquis_de_Louvois), 100,000 had received military training. A measure of the calibre of these immigrants and of their acceptance by host countries (in particular South Africa) is given by [H. V. Morton](/source/H._V._Morton) in his book: *In Search of South Africa* (London, 1948). The Huguenots were responsible for a great linguistic contribution to Afrikaans, particularly in terms of military terminology as many of them fought on the battlefields during the wars of the [Great Trek](/source/Great_Trek).

Most of the words in this list are descendants from Dutch borrowings from French, Old French or Latin, and are not direct influences from French on Afrikaans.

Afrikaans Dutch French English advies advies avis advice alarm alarm alarme alarm ammunisie ammunitie, munitie munition ammunition amusant amusant amusant funny artillerie artillerie artillerie artillery ateljee atelier atelier studio bagasie bagage bagage luggage bastion bastion bastion bastion bataljon bataljon bataillon battalion battery batterij batterie battery biblioteek bibliotheek bibliothèque library faktuur factuur facture invoice fort fort fort fort frikkadel frikandel fricadelle meatball garnisoen garnizoen garnison garrison generaal generaal général general granaat granaat grenade grenade infanterie infanterie infanterie infantry interessant interessant intéressant interesting kaliber kaliber calibre calibre kanon kanon canon cannon kanonnier kanonnier canonier gunner kardoes kardoes, cartouche cartouche cartridge kaptein kapitein capitaine captain kolonel kolonel colonel colonel kommandeur commandeur commandeur commander kwartier kwartier quartier quarter lieutenant lieutenant lieutenant lieutenant magasyn magazijn magasin magazine manier manier manière way marsjeer marcheer, marcheren marcher (to) march meubels meubels meubles furniture militêr militair militaire militarily morsel morzel morceau piece mortier mortier mortier mortar muit muit, muiten mutiner (to) mutiny musket musket mousquet musket muur muur mur wall myn mijn mine mine offisier officier officier officer orde orde ordre order papier papier papier paper pionier pionier pionnier pioneer plafon plafond plafond ceiling plat plat plat flat pont pont pont ferry provoos provoost prévôt chief rondte rondte, ronde ronde round salvo salvo salve salvo soldaat soldaat soldat soldier tante tante tante aunt tapyt tapijt tapis carpet tros tros trousse bunch

## Orthography

The Afrikaans [writing system](/source/Writing_system) is based on [Dutch](/source/Dutch_language), using the 26 letters of the [ISO basic Latin alphabet](/source/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet), plus 16 additional vowel sounds represented by adding [diacritics](/source/Diacritic). The [hyphen](/source/Hyphen) (e.g. in a compound like *see-eend* 'sea duck'), [apostrophe](/source/Apostrophe) (e.g. *ma's* 'mothers'), and a [whitespace character](/source/Whitespace_character) (e.g. in multi-word units like *Dooie See* 'Dead Sea') is part of the [orthography](/source/Orthography) of words, while the indefinite article *[ʼn](/source/%CA%BCN)* is a [ligature](/source/Ligature_(writing)). All the alphabet letters, including those with diacritics, have capital letters as [allographs](/source/Allograph); the *[ʼn](/source/%CA%BCN)* does not have a capital letter allograph. This means that Afrikaans has 88 [graphemes](/source/Grapheme) with allographs in total.

Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters) A Á Ä B C D E É È Ê Ë F G H I Í Î Ï J K L M N O Ó Ô Ö P Q R S T U Ú Û Ü V W X Y Ý Z Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters) a á ä b c d e é è ê ë f g h i í î ï j k l m n ʼn o ó ô ö p q r s t u ú û ü v w x y ý z

In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example, **slechts** ('only') in Dutch becomes **slegs** in Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between /s/ and /z/, having merged the latter into the former; while the word for "south" is written **zuid** in Dutch, it is spelled **suid** in Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraph **[ij](/source/IJ_(digraph))**, normally pronounced as /ɛi/, corresponds to Afrikaans **y**, except where it replaces the Dutch [suffix](/source/Affix) **–lijk** which is pronounced as /lək/, as in **waarschijnlijk* > *waarskynlik**.

Another difference is the indefinite article, **'n** in Afrikaans and *een* in Dutch. "A book" is **'n boek** in Afrikaans, whereas it is either **een boek** or **'n boek** in Dutch. This **'n** is usually pronounced as just a [weak vowel](/source/Weak_vowel), [ə], just like English "a".

The [diminutive](/source/Diminutive) suffix in Afrikaans is **-tjie**, **-djie** or **-ie**, whereas in Dutch it is **-tje** or **dje**, hence a "bit" is [ʼn](/source/%CA%BCN) *bie**tjie*** in Afrikaans and *bee**tje*** in Dutch.

The letters *c*, *q*, *x*, and *z* occur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English, Greek and [Latin](/source/Latin). This is usually because words that had *c* and *ch* in the original Dutch are spelled with *k* and *g*, respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly original *qu* and *x* are most often spelt *kw* and *ks*, respectively. For example, **ekwatoriaal** instead of *equatoriaal*, and **ekskuus** instead of *excuus*.

The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are: *á*, *ä*, *é*, *è*, *ê*, *ë*, *í*, *î*, *ï*, *ó*, *ô*, *ö*, *ú*, *û*, *ü*, *ý*. Diacritics are ignored when alphabetising, but it is important to include them even if they are difficult to type. For example, **geëet** ("ate") instead of the 3 e's alongside each other: ***geeet**, which can never occur in Afrikaans, or **sê**, which translates to "say", whereas **se** is a possessive form. The primary function of the acute accent (*á*, *é*, *í*, *ó*, *ú, ý)* is to indicate an emphasised syllable. For example, *sál* ("will" (verb)), *néé* ('no'), *móét* ("must"), *hý* ("he"), *gewéét* ("knew"). The acute is only placed on an *i* if that is the only vowel in an emphasised word: *wil* ('want' (verb)) becomes *wíl*, but *lui* ('lazy') becomes *lúi.* Only a few non-loan words are spelled with acutes, e.g. *dié* ('this'), *ná* ('after'), *óf ... óf* ('either ... or'), *nóg ... nóg* ('neither ... nor'), etc. Only four non-loan words are spelled with the grave accent: **nè** ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'), **dè** ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'), *hè* ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), and *appèl* ('(formal) appeal' (noun)).

### Initial apostrophes

A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except when writing in all-capitals); if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the following word that has no initial apostrophe is capitalised instead. Three examples of such apostrophed words are **'k, 't, 'n**. The last (the indefinite article) is the only such word common in modern written Afrikaans, since the others are shortened versions of words that are usually written out (**ek** and **het**, respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.[122]

Here are a few examples:

Apostrophed version Usual version Translation Notes 'k 't Dit gesê or Ek't dit gesê Ek het dit gesê I said it Version with two apostrophes is uncommon 't Jy dit geëet? Het jy dit geëet? Did you eat it? Extremely uncommon 'n Man loop daar A man walks there Standard Afrikaans pronounces 'n as a schwa vowel.

The apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single-character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode, *ʼn*.

### Table of characters

For more on the pronunciation of the letters below, see *Help:IPA/Afrikaans*.

Afrikaans letters and pronunciation Grapheme IPA Examples and Notes a /a/, /ɑː/ appel ('apple'; /a/), tale ('languages'; /ɑː/). Represents /a/ in closed syllables and /ɑː/ in stressed open syllables á /a/, /ɑː/ ná (after) ä /a/, /ɑː/ sebraägtig ('zebra-like'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable. aa /ɑː/ aap ('monkey', 'ape'). Only occurs in closed syllables. aai /ɑːi/ draai ('turn') ae /ɑːə/ vrae ('questions'); the vowels belong to two separate syllables ai /ai/ baie ('many', 'much' or 'very'), ai (expression of frustration or resignation) b /b/, /p/ boom ('tree') c /s/, /k/ Found only in borrowed words or proper nouns; the former pronunciation occurs before 'e', 'i', or 'y'; featured in the Latinate plural ending -ici (singular form -ikus) ch /ʃ/, /x/, /k/ chirurg ('surgeon'; /ʃ/; typically sj is used instead), chemie ('chemistry'; /x/), chitien ('chitin'; /k/). Found only in recent loanwords and in proper nouns d /d/, /t/ dag ('day'), deel ('part', 'divide', 'share') dj /d͡ʒ/, /k/ djati ('teak'), broodjie ('sandwich'). Used to transcribe foreign words for the former pronunciation, and in the diminutive suffix -djie for the latter in words ending with d e /e(ː)/, /æ(ː)/, /ɪə/, /ɪ/, /ə/ bed (/e/), mens ('person', /eː/) (lengthened before /n/) ete ('meal', /ɪə/ and /ə/ respectively), berg ('mountain', /æ/), sker ('scissors', /æː/). /ɪ/ is the unstressed allophone of /ɪə/ é /e(ː)/, /æ(ː)/, /ɪə/ dié ('this'), mét ('with', emphasised), ék ('I; me', emphasised), wéét ('know', emphasised) è /e/ Found in loanwords (like crèche) and proper nouns (like Eugène) where the spelling was maintained, and in four non-loanwords: nè ('yes?', 'right?', 'eh?'), dè ('here, take this!' or '[this is] yours!'), hè ('huh?', 'what?', 'eh?'), and appèl ('(formal) appeal' (noun)). ê /eː/, /æː/ sê ('to say'), wêreld ('world'), lêer ('file') (Allophonically /æː/ before /(ə)r/) ë – This diaeresis only indicates the start of a new syllable, thus ë, ëe and ëi are pronounced the same as 'e', 'ee' and 'ei', respectively ee /ɪə/ weet ('to know'), een ('one') eeu /ɪu/ leeu ('lion'), eeu ('century', 'age') ei /ei/ lei ('to lead') eu /ɪɵ/ seun ('son' or 'lad') f /f/ fiets ('bicycle') g /x/, /ɡ/ /ɡ/ exists as the allophone of /x/ if at the end of a root word preceded by a stressed single vowel + /r/ and suffixed with a schwa, e.g. berg ('mountain') is pronounced as /bæːrx/, and berge is pronounced as /bæːrɡə/ gh /ɡ/ gholf ('golf'). Used for /ɡ/ when it is not an allophone of /x/; found only in borrowed words. If the h instead begins the next syllable, the two letters are pronounced separately. h /ɦ/ hael ('hail'), hond ('dog') i /i/, /ə/ kind ('child'; /ə/), ink ('ink'; /ə/), krisis ('crisis'; /i/ and /ə/ respectively), elektrisiteit ('electricity'; /i/ for all three; third 'i' is part of diphthong 'ei') í /i/, /ə/ krísis ('crisis', emphasised), dít ('that', emphasised) î /əː/ wîe (plural of wig; 'wedges' or 'quoins') ï /i/, /ə/ Found in words such as beïnvloed ('to influence'). The diaeresis indicates the start of a new syllable. /i(ː)/ iets ('something'), vier ('four') j /j/ julle (plural 'you') k /k/ kat ('cat'), kan ('can' (verb) or 'jug') l /l/ lag ('laugh') m /m/ man ('man') n /n/ nael ('nail') ʼn /ə/ indefinite article ʼn ('a'), styled as a ligature (Unicode character U+0149) ng /ŋ/ sing ('to sing') o /o/, /ʊə/, /ʊ/ op ('up(on)'; /o/), grote ('size'; /ʊə/), polisie ('police'; /ʊ/) ó /o/, /ʊə/ óp ('done, finished', emphasised), gróót ('huge', emphasised) ô /oː/ môre ('tomorrow') ö /o/, /ʊə/ Found in words such as koöperasie ('co-operation'). The diaeresis indicates the start of new syllable, thus ö is pronounced the same as 'o' based on the following remainder of the word. oe /u(ː)/ boek ('book'), koers ('course', 'direction') oei /ui/ koei ('cow') oo /ʊə/ oom ('uncle' or 'sir') ooi /oːi/ mooi ('pretty', 'beautiful'), nooi ('invite') ou /ɵu/ die ou ('the guy'), die ou skoen ('the old shoe'). Sometimes spelled ouw in loanwords and surnames, for example Louw. p /p/ pot ('pot'), pers ('purple' — or 'press' indicating the news media; the latter is often spelled with an <ê>) q /k/ Found only in foreign words with original spelling maintained; typically k is used instead r /r/ rooi ('red') s /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/ ses ('six'), stem ('voice' or 'vote'), posisie ('position', /z/ for first 's', /s/ for second 's'), rasioneel ('rational', /ʃ/ (nonstandard; formally /s/ is used instead) visuëel ('visual', /ʒ/ (nonstandard; /z/ is more formal) sj /ʃ/ sjaal ('shawl'), sjokolade ('chocolate') t /t/ tafel ('table') tj /tʃ/, /k/ tjank ('whine like a dog' or 'to cry incessantly'). The latter pronunciation occurs in the common diminutive suffix "-(e)tjie" u /ɵ/, /y(ː)/ stuk ('piece'), unie ('union') ú /œ/, /y(ː)/ búk ('bend over', emphasised), ú ('you', formal, emphasised) û /ɵː/ brûe ('bridges') ü – Indicates the start of a new syllable in words such as reünie ('reunion'), where it is pronounced the same as u. In German words, including surnames such as Müller, it is pronounced as in German. ui /ɵi/ uit ('out') uu /y(ː)/ uur ('hour') v /f/, /v/ vis ('fish'), visuëel ('visual') w /v/, /w/ water ('water'; /v/); allophonically /w/ after obstruents within a root; an example: kwas ('brush'; /w/) x /z/, /ks/ xifoïed ('xiphoid'; /z/), x-straal ('x-ray'; /ks/). y /əi/ byt ('bite') ý /əi/ hý ('he', emphasised) z /z/ Zoeloe ('Zulu'). Found only in onomatopoeia and loanwords

## Sample text

Article 1 of the *[Universal Declaration of Human Rights](/source/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights)*:[123]

- *Alle menslike wesens word vry, met gelyke waardigheid en regte, gebore. Hulle het rede en gewete en behoort in die gees van broederskap teenoor mekaar op te tree.*

[Psalm 23](/source/Psalm_23) 1953 translation:[124]

Die Here is my Herder, niks sal my ontbreek nie. Hy laat my neerlê in groen weivelde; na waters waar rus is, lei Hy my heen. Hy verkwik my siel; Hy lei my in die spore van geregtigheid, om sy Naam ontwil. Al gaan ek ook in 'n dal van doodskaduwee, ek sal geen onheil vrees nie; want U is met my: u stok en u staf die vertroos my.

[Psalm 23](/source/Psalm_23) 1983 translation:[124]

Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie. Hy laat my rus in groen weivelde. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is. Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam. Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.

[Lord's Prayer](/source/Lord's_Prayer) (Afrikaans New Living Version translation):[125]

Ons Vader in die hemel, laat u Naam geheilig word. Laat u koninkryk kom. Laat u wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel. Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het. En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het. Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; maar bevry ons van die greep van die bose. Want aan U behoort die koningskap, en die krag, en die heerlikheid, vir altyd. Amen.

[Lord's Prayer](/source/Lord's_Prayer) (Original translation):[citation needed]

Onse Vader wat in die hemel is, laat U Naam geheilig word; laat U koninkryk kom; laat U wil geskied op die aarde, net soos in die hemel. Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood; en vergeef ons ons skulde soos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe en laat ons nie in die versoeking nie maar verlos ons van die bose Want aan U behoort die koninkryk en die krag en die heerlikheid tot in ewigheid. Amen

## See also

- **[Aardklop](/source/Aardklop)** Arts Festival
- [Afrikaans literature](/source/Afrikaans_literature)
- [Afrikaans speaking population in South Africa](/source/Afrikaans_speaking_population_in_South_Africa)
- [Arabic Afrikaans](/source/Arabic_Afrikaans)
- **[Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal](/source/Handwoordeboek_van_die_Afrikaanse_Taal)* (HAT)* (Concise Afrikaans Dictionary)
- **[Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal](/source/Woordeboek_van_die_Afrikaanse_Taal)* (WAT)* (Comprehensive Afrikaans Dictionary)
- [Differences between Afrikaans and Dutch](/source/Differences_between_Afrikaans_and_Dutch)
- IPA/Afrikaans
- **[Klein Karoo Nasionale Kunstefees](/source/Klein_Karoo_Nasionale_Kunstefees)** (Arts Festival)
- [Languages of South Africa](/source/Languages_of_South_Africa)
- [Languages of Zimbabwe § Afrikaans](/source/Languages_of_Zimbabwe#Afrikaans)
- [List of Afrikaans language poets](/source/List_of_Afrikaans_language_poets)
- [List of Afrikaans singers](/source/List_of_Afrikaans_singers)
- [List of English words of Afrikaans origin](/source/List_of_English_words_of_Afrikaans_origin)
- [South African Translators' Institute](/source/South_African_Translators'_Institute)
- *[Tsotsitaal](/source/Tsotsitaal)*

## References

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## Further reading

- Grieshaber, Nicky. 2011. *Diacs and Quirks in a Nutshell – Afrikaans spelling explained*. Pietermaritzburg. ISBN 978-0-620-51726-3; e-ISBN 978-0-620-51980-9.
- Roberge, P. T. (2002), "Afrikaans – considering origins", *Language in South Africa*, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-53383-X
- Thomas, C. H. (1899), ["Boer language"](http://www.angloboerwar.com/books/60-thomas-origin-of-the-anglo-boer-war-revealed/1255-thomas-boer-language), "Origin of the Anglo-Boer War revealed", London, England: Hodder and Stoughton

## External links

- [afrikaans.com](https://afrikaans.com)
- [Afrikaans English Online Dictionary at Hablaa](https://web.archive.org/web/20120604085505/http://hablaa.com/afrikaans-english/) (archived 4 June 2012)
- [Afrikaans-English Online Dictionary at majstro.com](http://www.majstro.com/dictionaries/Afrikaans-English/)
- [Learn Afrikaans Online](https://www.afrikaans.us/Afrikaans/)[dead link] (Open Learning Environment)
- [Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (FAK)](http://www.fak.org.za/) – Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Associations
- [*Dutch Writers from South Africa: A Cultural-Historical Study, Part I*](http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4326) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20201018060514/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/4326/) 18 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine from the [World Digital Library](/source/World_Digital_Library)
- [*Afrikaans Literature and Language* Web dossier African Studies Centre, Leiden (2011)](http://www.ascleiden.nl/?q=content/webdossiers/afrikaans-literature-and-language) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130518170007/http://www.ascleiden.nl/?q=content/webdossiers/afrikaans-literature-and-language) 18 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine

1. /ˌæfrᵻˈkɑːns/ AF-rih-KAHNSS, /ˌɑːf-,_-ˈkɑːnz/ AHF---,_---KAHNZ[126][127]

1. Afrikaans borrowed from other languages such as Portuguese, German, Malay, Bantu, and Khoisan languages; see Sebba 1997, p. 160, Niesler, Louw & Roux 2005, p. 459.Ninety to ninety-five percent of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin; see Mesthrie 1995, p. 214, Mesthrie 2002, p. 205, Kamwangamalu 2004, p. 203, Berdichevsky 2004, p. 131, Brachin & Vincent 1985, p. 132.

1. For morphology; see Holm 1989, p. 338, Geerts & Clyne 1992, p. 72. For grammar and spelling; see Sebba 1997, p. 161.

1. The changed spelling rule was introduced in article 1, rule 3, of the Dutch "orthography law" of 14 February 1947. In 1954 the *[Word list of the Dutch language](/source/Word_list_of_the_Dutch_language)* which regulates the spelling of individual words including the word *Afrikaans* was first published.[128]

1. *kan* would be best used in this case because *kan nie* means cannot and since he is sick he is unable to come, whereas *sal* is 'will' in English and is thus not the best word choice.

1. They were named before the establishment of the current [Western Cape](/source/Western_Cape), Eastern Cape, and [Northern Cape](/source/Northern_Cape) provinces, and are not dialects of those provinces *per se*.

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Afrikaans](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaans) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaans?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.