# Absolute monarchy

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Government where the monarch has absolute power

[King Salman bin Abdulaziz](/source/Salman_of_Saudi_Arabia) and [Sultan Haitham bin Tariq](/source/Haitham_bin_Tariq) are the current absolute monarchs of [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia) and [Oman](/source/Oman), respectively.

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**Absolute monarchy** is a form of [monarchy](/source/Monarchy) in which the sovereign is the sole source of political power, unconstrained by [constitutions](/source/Constitutional_monarchy), [legislatures](/source/Legislature) or other checks on their authority.[1][2] Throughout history, there have been many examples of absolute monarchs, with some famous examples including [Louis XIV](/source/Louis_XIV) and [Frederick the Great](/source/Frederick_the_Great).[3][4]

The number of absolute monarchies in the world vary but some datasets agree that [Brunei](/source/Brunei), [Eswatini](/source/Eswatini), [Oman](/source/Oman), [Qatar](/source/Qatar), and [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia) are absolute monarchies, while others include [Bahrain](/source/Bahrain), [Bhutan](/source/Bhutan), [Jordan](/source/Jordan), [Kuwait](/source/Kuwait), [Liechtenstein](/source/Liechtenstein), [Monaco](/source/Monaco), [Morocco](/source/Morocco), [Tonga](/source/Tonga), [Vatican City](/source/Vatican_City) and the [United Arab Emirates](/source/United_Arab_Emirates).[5]

Though absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents (such as the [King's Law](/source/King's_Law) of [Denmark-Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway)), they are distinct from [constitutional monarchies](/source/Constitutional_monarchies), in which the authority of the monarch is restricted (e.g. by legislature or unwritten customs) or balanced by that of other officials, such as a [prime minister](/source/Prime_minister), as is in the case of the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom), or the [Nordic countries](/source/Nordic_countries).[1]

Absolute monarchies are distinct from [hereditary dictatorships](/source/Hereditary_dictatorship) such as [North Korea](/source/North_Korea), [Duvalier Haiti](/source/Duvalier_family) or [Ba'athist Syria](/source/Ba'athist_Syria).[6]

## Historical examples of absolute monarchies

World's states colored by systems of [government](/source/Government):

- **[Parliamentary systems](/source/Parliamentary_system):** Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature. [Constitutional monarchy](/source/Constitutional_monarchy) with a ceremonial monarch [Semi-constitutional monarchy](/source/Semi-constitutional_monarchy): Monarch holds significant executive or legislative power but is still restricted by the constitution. [Parliamentary republic](/source/Parliamentary_republic) with a ceremonial president [Parliamentary republic with an executive president](/source/Parliamentary_republics_with_an_executive_presidency) **[Presidential system](/source/Presidential_system):** Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature. Presidential republic **Hybrid systems:** [Semi-presidential republic](/source/Semi-presidential_republic): Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature. [Assembly-independent republic](/source/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government#Assembly-independent_republics): Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it. [Theocratic republic](/source/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government#Theocratic_republic): Supreme leader is head of both state and faith. Supreme leader has significant legislative and executive power. **Other systems:** [Islamic theocracy](/source/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government#Islamic_theocracy): Supreme leader holds unlimited political and religious power; state and faith are a single institution. Absolute monarchy: Monarch has unlimited power. [One-party state](/source/One-party_state): Power is constitutionally linked to a single political party. [Provisional government](/source/Provisional_government): current regime is temporary or transition; no permanent constitution [Military junta](/source/Military_junta): Committee of military leaders controls the government; constitutional provisions are suspended. Dependent territories or places without governments. **Note:** this chart represents the *[de jure](/source/De_jure)* systems of government, not the *[de facto](/source/De_facto)* degree of democracy. - [v](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Systems_of_government) - [t](/source/Template_talk%3ASystems_of_government) - [e](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Systems_of_government)

### Outside Europe

In the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire), the [Sultan](/source/Sultan) wielded absolute power over the state and was considered a [Padishah](/source/Padishah), meaning "Great King" by his people. Many sultans wielded absolute power through heavenly mandates reflected in their titles, such as "Shadow of God on Earth". In [ancient Mesopotamia](/source/Ancient_Mesopotamia), many rulers of [Assyria](/source/Assyria), [Babylonia](/source/Babylonia) and [Sumer](/source/Sumer) were absolute monarchs as well.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Throughout [Imperial China](/source/Imperial_China), many [emperors](/source/Emperor_of_China) and one empress ([Wu Zetian](/source/Wu_Zetian)) wielded absolute power through the [Mandate of Heaven](/source/Mandate_of_Heaven). In [pre-Columbian America](/source/Pre-Columbian_America), the [Inca Empire](/source/Inca_Empire) was ruled by a [Sapa Inca](/source/Sapa_Inca), who was considered the son of [Inti](/source/Inti), the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Korea under the [Joseon dynasty](/source/Joseon_dynasty)[7] and short-lived [empire](/source/Korean_Empire) was also an absolute monarchy.

### Europe

Main article: [Absolutism (European history)](/source/Absolutism_(European_history))

Throughout much of European history, the [divine right of kings](/source/Divine_right_of_kings) was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs claimed [supreme autocratic power](/source/Tsarist_autocracy) by divine right, and that their subjects had no rights to limit their power.[8]

#### Kingdoms of England and Scotland

[James VI and I](/source/James_VI_and_I) and his son [Charles I](/source/Charles_I_of_England) tried to import the principle of [divine right](/source/Divine_right_of_kings) into Scotland and England. Charles I's attempt to enforce [episcopal polity](/source/Episcopal_polity) on the [Church of Scotland](/source/Church_of_Scotland) led to rebellion by the [Covenanters](/source/Covenanter) and the [Bishops' Wars](/source/Bishops'_Wars), then fears that Charles I was attempting to establish absolutist government along European lines was a major cause of the [English Civil War](/source/English_Civil_War), although he did rule this way for 11 years starting in 1629, after dissolving the [Parliament of England](/source/Parliament_of_England) for a time.[9]

#### Denmark–Norway

Further information: [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway) and [King's Law](/source/King's_Law)

Absolutism was underpinned by a written constitution for the first time in Europe in 1665 *Kongeloven*, '[King's Law](/source/King's_Law)' of [Denmark–Norway](/source/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway), which ordered that the Monarch:

...shall from this day forth be revered and considered the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone.[10][11]

This law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the [Council of the Realm](/source/Rigsraad) in Denmark. Absolute monarchy lasted until [1814 in Norway](/source/1814_in_Norway), and [1848 in Denmark](/source/1848_in_Denmark).

#### Habsburgs

[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor](/source/Joseph_II%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor)

Further information: [House of Habsburg](/source/House_of_Habsburg)

The House of Habsburg is currently extinct in its male line, due to the death of the childless [Charles II of Spain](/source/Charles_II_of_Spain) in 1700. However, the [House of Habsburg-Lorraine](/source/House_of_Hapsburg-Lorraine) still carries the female line of the House of Habsburg.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The first member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over the [Holy Roman Empire](/source/Holy_Roman_Empire) was [Joseph II](/source/Joseph_II), a sovereign raised during the Enlightenment. Joseph II [extended full legal freedom to serfs](/source/Serfdom_Patent_(1781)) in 1781. [Franz Joseph I](/source/Franz_Joseph_I) of Austria was [Emperor of Austria](/source/Emperor_of_Austria) from 1848 until his death in 1916 and was succeeded by [Charles I of Austria](/source/Charles_I_of_Austria). Charles I was the last Emperor of Austria and abdicated on 12 November 1918 due to [Austria-Hungary](/source/Austria-Hungary) losing [World War I](/source/World_War_I).

#### Hungary

Further information: [King of Hungary](/source/King_of_Hungary) and [Kingdom of Hungary](/source/Kingdom_of_Hungary)

#### France

[Louis XIV](/source/Louis_XIV) of France

Main article: [Absolute monarchy in France](/source/Absolute_monarchy_in_France)

[Louis XIV](/source/Louis_XIV) (1638–1715) is said to have proclaimed *[L'état, c'est moi](/source/L'%C3%A9tat%2C_c'est_moi)!*, 'I am the State!'.[12] Although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the [Palace of Versailles](/source/Palace_of_Versailles), he reigned over France for a long period.[13]

The king of France concentrated legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his person. He was the supreme judicial authority. He could condemn people to death without the right of appeal. It was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them.[14]

#### Prussia

Further information: [Prussia](/source/Prussia)

King [Frederick II](/source/Frederick_the_Great) of Prussia, "the Great"

In [Brandenburg-Prussia](/source/Brandenburg-Prussia), the concept of absolute monarch took a notable turn from the above with its emphasis on the monarch as the "first servant of the state", but it also echoed many of the important characteristics of absolutism. Prussia was ruled by the [House of Hohenzollern](/source/House_of_Hohenzollern) as a [feudal monarchy](/source/Feudal_monarchy) from 1525 to 1701 and an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848, after which it became a [federal](/source/Federalism) [semi-constitutional](/source/Constitutional_monarchy) monarchy from 1848 to 1918 until the monarchy was abolished during the [German Revolution](/source/German_Revolution).[15]

[Frederick I](/source/Frederick_I_of_Prussia) was the first *[King in Prussia](/source/King_in_Prussia)*, beginning his reign on 18 January 1701.[16] King [Frederick the Great](/source/Frederick_the_Great) adopted the title *King of Prussia* in 1772, the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the [First Partition of Poland](/source/First_Partition_of_Poland), and practiced [enlightened absolutism](/source/Enlightened_absolutism) until his death in 1786. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established the principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice.[17] He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German [gymnasium](/source/Gymnasium_(school)) (grammar school) system, which prepares high achieving students for university studies. The [Prussian education system](/source/Prussian_education_system) was emulated in various countries, including the United States.

#### Russia

Further information: [Russian Empire](/source/Russian_Empire)

Photograph of Tsar Alexander II, 1878–81

Until 1905, the [tsars](/source/Tsar) and [emperors](/source/Emperor) of Russia governed as absolute monarchs. [Ivan IV](/source/Ivan_the_Terrible) ("the Terrible") was known for his reign of terror through the *[oprichnina](/source/Oprichnina)*. Following the [Time of Troubles](/source/Time_of_Troubles) in the early 17th century, the traditional alliance of autocratic monarchy, the church, and the aristocracy was widely seen as the only basis for preserving the social order and Russian statehood, which legitimized the rule of the [Romanov dynasty](/source/House_of_Romanov).[18] [Peter I](/source/Peter_the_Great) ("the Great") reduced the power of the [Russian nobility](/source/Russian_nobility) and strengthened the central power of the monarch, establishing a bureaucracy. This tradition of absolutism was expanded by [Catherine II](/source/Catherine_the_Great) and her descendants.

Russia became the last European country (excluding [Vatican City](/source/Vatican_City)) to abolish absolutism, and it was the only one to do so as late as the 20th century (the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) drafted [its first constitution](/source/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876) in 1876). Russia was one of the four continental empires which collapsed [after World War I](/source/Aftermath_of_World_War_I), along with [Germany](/source/German_Empire), [Austria–Hungary](/source/Austria%E2%80%93Hungary), and the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire). In 1918, the [Bolsheviks executed the Romanov family](/source/Execution_of_the_Romanov_family), ending three centuries of Romanov rule.[19]

#### Sweden

Further information: [Swedish Empire](/source/Swedish_Empire)

## Contemporary trends

The [Revolutions of 1848](/source/Revolutions_of_1848), known in some countries as the *Springtime of the Peoples* or the *Springtime of Nations*, were a series of [political upheavals](/source/Political_upheaval) throughout [Europe](/source/Europe) in 1848.[20]

Many nations formerly with absolute monarchies, such as [Jordan](/source/Jordan), [Kuwait](/source/Kuwait), [Morocco](/source/Morocco) and [Qatar](/source/Qatar), have *[de jure](/source/De_jure)* moved towards a [constitutional monarchy](/source/Constitutional_monarchy). However, in these cases, the monarch still retains tremendous powers, even to the extent that by some measures, parliament's influence on political life is viewed as negligible or merely consultative.[a][22][23]

In [Nepal](/source/Nepal), there were several swings between constitutional rule and direct rule related to the [Nepalese Civil War](/source/Nepalese_Civil_War), the [Maoist insurgency](/source/Communist_Party_of_Nepal_(Maoist_Centre)), and the 2001 [Nepalese royal massacre](/source/Nepalese_royal_massacre), with the [Nepalese monarchy](/source/Kingdom_of_Nepal) being abolished on 28 May 2008.[24]

In [Tonga](/source/Tonga), the [king](/source/King_of_Tonga) had majority control of the [Legislative Assembly](/source/Legislative_Assembly_of_Tonga) until 2010.[25]

### Liechtenstein

[Liechtenstein](/source/Liechtenstein) has moved towards expanding the power of the monarch—the [Prince of Liechtenstein](/source/Prince_of_Liechtenstein) was given vast expanded powers after a [referendum](/source/2003_Liechtenstein_constitutional_referendum) to amend the [Constitution of Liechtenstein](/source/Constitution_of_Liechtenstein) in 2003, which led [BBC News](/source/BBC_News) to describe the prince as an "absolute monarch again".[26] The referendum granted the monarch the powers to dismiss the government, nominate judges and [veto](/source/Veto) legislation, among others.[27] Just prior to the referendum, the [Venice Commission](/source/Venice_Commission) of the [Council of Europe](/source/Council_of_Europe) published a comprehensive report analysing the amendments, opining that they were not compatible with the European standards of democracy, effectively making Liechtenstein a *[de facto](/source/De_facto)* absolute monarchy.[28] [Prince Hans-Adam II](/source/Prince_Hans-Adam_II) had also previously threatened to leave the country and move his assets out of Liechtenstein if voters had chosen to restrict his powers.[26]

### Vatican City

Main article: [Vatican City](/source/Vatican_City)

Vatican City continues to be an absolute monarchy, but is unique because it is also a [microstate](/source/Microstate), [ecclesiastical jurisdiction](/source/Ecclesiastical_jurisdiction), and [elective monarchy](/source/Elective_monarchy). As of 2023, Vatican City has a population of 764 residents (regardless of citizenship). It is the smallest state in the world [both by area](/source/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area) and [by population](/source/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population). The [Pope](/source/Pope) is the absolute monarch of Vatican City, and is elected by a [papal conclave](/source/Papal_conclave) with a two-thirds supermajority.[29][30]

As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an [sacerdotal](/source/Sacerdotal_state)-[monarchical](/source/Monarchy) state ruled by the Pope, who is the [bishop of Rome](/source/Bishop_of_Rome) and head of the [Catholic Church](/source/Catholic_Church).[31] Unlike [citizenship](/source/Citizenship) of other states, which is based either on *[jus sanguinis](/source/Jus_sanguinis)* or *[jus soli](/source/Jus_soli)*, citizenship of Vatican City is granted on *jus officii*, namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city.[32]

## Current absolute monarchs

  Denotes subnational monarchy

Realm Image Monarch Born Age Since Length Succession Ref(s) Brunei Darussalam Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah (1946-07-15)15 July 1946 79 years, 348 days 4 October 1967 58 years, 267 days Hereditary [33] Emirate of Sharjah Ruler Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi (1939-07-02)2 July 1939 86 years, 361 days 25 January 1972 54 years, 154 days Hereditary [34] Emirate of Fujairah Ruler Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi (1949-02-22)22 February 1949 77 years, 126 days 18 September 1974 51 years, 283 days Hereditary [34] Emirate of Ajman Ruler Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi III 1931 (1931) 94–95 years 6 September 1981 44 years, 295 days Hereditary [34] Kingdom of Eswatini Ngwenyama Mswati III (1968-04-19)19 April 1968 58 years, 70 days 25 April 1986 40 years, 64 days Hereditary and elective [35] Emirate of Dubai Ruler Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (1949-07-15)15 July 1949 76 years, 348 days 4 January 2006 20 years, 175 days Hereditary [34] Emirate of Umm al-Quwain Ruler Saud bin Rashid Al Mualla (1952-10-01)1 October 1952 73 years, 270 days 2 January 2009 17 years, 177 days Hereditary [34] Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah Ruler Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi (1956-02-10)10 February 1956 70 years, 138 days 27 October 2010 15 years, 244 days Hereditary [34] Kingdom of Saudi Arabia King Salman bin Abdul‘aziz (1935-12-31)31 December 1935 90 years, 179 days 23 January 2015 11 years, 156 days Hereditary and elective [36] Sultanate of Oman Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al Said (1954-10-11)11 October 1954 71 years, 260 days 11 January 2020 6 years, 168 days Hereditary [37][38] Emirate of Abu Dhabi Ruler Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan (1961-03-11)11 March 1961 65 years, 109 days 13 May 2022 4 years, 46 days Hereditary [34] Vatican City State Pope Leo XIV (1955-09-14)14 September 1955 70 years, 287 days 8 May 2025 1 year, 51 days Elective [39]

### Saudi Arabia

Main article: [Politics of Saudi Arabia](/source/Politics_of_Saudi_Arabia)

[Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia) is an absolute monarchy, and according to the [Basic Law of Saudi Arabia](/source/Basic_Law_of_Saudi_Arabia) adopted by Royal Decree in 1992, the King must comply with [Sharia](/source/Sharia) (Islamic law) and the [Quran](/source/Quran).[40] The Quran and the body of the [Sunnah](/source/Sunnah) (traditions of the Islamic [prophet](/source/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam), [Muhammad](/source/Muhammad)) are declared to be the Kingdom's Constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been promulgated for Saudi Arabia, which remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever taken place since its founding.[41][42] No political parties or national elections are permitted.[43][40] The Saudi government is the world's most authoritarian regime in 2023 measured by the electoral democracy score of the [V-Dem Democracy indices](/source/V-Dem_Democracy_indices).[44]

### Oman

Main article: [Politics of Oman](/source/Politics_of_Oman)

Oman is an absolute monarchy, with the [Sultan of Oman](/source/List_of_rulers_of_Oman) being both [head of state](/source/Head_of_state) and [head of government](/source/Head_of_government). The Sultan is [hereditary](/source/Heredity), who appoints a cabinet to assist him. The sultan also serves as the supreme commander of the armed forces and prime minister. Oman bans all [political parties](/source/List_of_political_parties_in_Oman).[45]

## Scholarship

There is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as [Perry Anderson](/source/Perry_Anderson), argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, while historians such as Roger Mettam dispute the very concept of absolutism.[46] In general, historians who disagree with the appellation of *absolutism* argue that most monarchs labeled as *absolutist* exerted no greater power over their subjects than any other *non-absolutist* rulers, and these historians tend to emphasize the differences between the absolutist [rhetoric](/source/Rhetoric) of monarchs and the realities of the effective use of power by these absolute monarchs. Renaissance historian [William Bouwsma](/source/William_J._Bouwsma) summed up this contradiction:

Nothing so clearly indicates the limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those ablest to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income.[47]

— William Bouwsma

[Anthropology](/source/Anthropology), [sociology](/source/Sociology), and [ethology](/source/Ethology) as well as various other disciplines such as [political science](/source/Political_science) attempt to explain the rise of absolute monarchy ranging from extrapolation generally, to certain [Marxist explanations](/source/The_Eighteenth_Brumaire_of_Louis_Napoleon) in terms of the [class struggle](/source/Class_struggle) as the underlying dynamic of human historical development generally and absolute monarchy in particular.

In the 17th century, French legal theorist [Jean Domat](/source/Jean_Domat) defended the concept of absolute monarchy in works such as *"On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy"*, citing absolute monarchy as preserving natural order as [God](/source/God) intended.[48] Other intellectual figures who supported absolute monarchy include [Thomas Hobbes](/source/Thomas_Hobbes) and [Charles Maurras](/source/Charles_Maurras).

## See also

- [Monarchy portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Monarchy)

- [Autocracy](/source/Autocracy)

- [Authoritarianism](/source/Authoritarianism)

- [Constitutional monarchy](/source/Constitutional_monarchy)

- [Criticism of monarchy](/source/Criticism_of_monarchy)

- [Despotism](/source/Despotism)

- [Dictatorship](/source/Dictatorship)

- [Enlightened absolutism](/source/Enlightened_absolutism)

- [Monarchomachs](/source/Monarchomachs)

- [Totalitarianism](/source/Totalitarianism)

- [Tyranny](/source/Tyranny)

## Footnotes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** "By 1985 the legislature appeared to have become more firmly established and recognized as a body in which notables representing authentic forces in the political spectrum could address national issues and problems. But it had not gained real autonomy or a direct role in the shaping of government policies." [...] "In spite of its formally defined role in the lawmaking and budgetary processes, the parliament had not established itself as an independent branch of government, owing to the restrictions on its constitutional authority and the dominating influence of the king. The fact that the king has been able to govern for long periods by *zahir* after dissolving the legislative body has further underscored the marginality of the chamber." — J.R. Tartter (1986)[21]

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Harris_2009_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Harris_2009_1-1) Harris, Nathanial (2009). [*Systems of Government Monarchy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=o5SKJanyblIC). Evans Brothers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-237-53932-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-237-53932-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Konnert, Mark (23 August 2008). [*Early Modern Europe: The Age of Religious War, 1559-1715*](https://books.google.com/books?id=t6TXB9RbwbYC&dq=absolute%20monarchy&pg=PA165). University of Toronto Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4426-0004-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0004-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Beik, William (2005). ["The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration"](https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gti019). *Past & Present*. pp. 195–224. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/pastj/gti019](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpastj%2Fgti019).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Wilson, Peter (November 2002). [*Absolutism in Central Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QuOEAgAAQBAJ&dq=frederick%20the%20great%20absolute%20monarch&pg=PA98). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-74805-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-74805-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:4_5-0)** Inata, Kana (2025). "3. Measuring the Powers of Monarchs". [*Monarchies in the Contemporary World: Born to Rule or Bound to Fade?*](https://doi.org/10.1093/9780198967132.003.0003). Oxford University Press. pp. 43–134. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/9780198967132.003.0003](https://doi.org/10.1093%2F9780198967132.003.0003). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-896711-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-896711-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/228912](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/228912)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Choi, Sang-hun (27 October 2017). [*Interior Space and Furniture of Joseon Upper-class Houses*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16). Ewha Womans University Press. p. 16. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788973007202](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788973007202). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111606/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16) from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020 – via Google Books. Joseon was an absolute monarchy

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Burgess, Glenn (1992). ["The Divine Right of Kings Reconsidered"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/574219). *The English Historical Review*. **107** (425): 837–861. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/ehr/CVII.CCCCXXV.837](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FCVII.CCCCXXV.837). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [574219](https://www.jstor.org/stable/574219).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["Charles I of England"](https://www.worldhistory.org/Charles_I_of_England/). *World History Encyclopedia*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230904043102/https://www.worldhistory.org/Charles_I_of_England/) from the original on 4 September 2023. Retrieved 17 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["Kongeloven af 1665"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120330135036/http://danskekonger.dk/kilder/kongeloven) (in Danish). Danske konger. Archived from [the original](http://danskekonger.dk/kilder/kongeloven) on 2012-03-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** A partial English translation of the law can be found in Ekman, Ernst (1957). "The Danish Royal Law of 1665". *The Journal of Modern History*. **29** (2): 102–107. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1086/237987](https://doi.org/10.1086%2F237987). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145652129](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145652129).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Louis XIV"](https://www.history.com/topics/france/louis-xiv). *HISTORY*. Retrieved 2018-10-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Holberg, Ludvig (2 April 2024). [*Ludvig Holberg's memoirs: An eighteenth century Danish contribution to international understanding*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4jT-EAAAQBAJ&dq=louis+xiv+longest+reign&pg=PA75). BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-59508-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-59508-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Mousnier, R. *The Institutions of France under the Absolute Monarchy, 1598-2012 V1.* Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1979.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** *The Western Experience*, Seventh Edition, Boston: [McGraw-Hill](/source/McGraw-Hill), 1999.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Beier162_16-0)** Beier, Brigitte (2007). *Die Chronik der Deutschen* (in German). wissenmedia. p. 162. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-577-14374-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-577-14374-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** David Fraser, *Frederick the Great: King of Prussia* (2001) [online](https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatki00fras/page/n5/mode/2up)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Lieven, Dominic (2021). "The Russian Empire (1453–1917)". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, Christopher Alan; Scheidel, Walter (eds.). [*The Oxford World History of Empire*](https://books.google.com/books?id=nz0HEAAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. p. 965. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-753276-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753276-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Planert, Ute; Retallack, James, eds. (2017). [*Decades of Reconstruction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vZokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331). Cambridge University Press. p. 331. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781107165748](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107165748). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230211110511/https://books.google.com/books?id=vZokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331) from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Merriman, John (1996). *A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the present*. p. 715.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Tartter, Jean R. (1986). "Government and politics". In Nelson, Harold D. (ed.). [*Morocco, a country study*](https://archive.org/details/moroccocountryst00nels/mode/2up). Area Handbook. United States Government Printing Office. pp. 246–247. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [12749718](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/12749718). Retrieved 2022-03-25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Tusalem, Rollin F. (16 September 2021). ["Bringing the legislature back in: Examining the structural effects of national legislatures on effective democratic governance"](https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2021.32). *Government and Opposition*. **58** (2): 291–315. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/gov.2021.32](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fgov.2021.32). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0017-257X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-257X). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [240505261](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240505261).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Rafayah, Shakir (29 January 2022). ["What role for political parties in Jordan?"](https://thearabweekly.com/what-role-political-parties-jordan). *Arab Weekly*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230601205815/https://thearabweekly.com/what-role-political-parties-jordan) from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Sharma, Gopal (2008-05-29). ["Nepal abolishes centuries-old Hindu monarchy"](https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nepal-king-idUSISL5996320080529). *[Reuters](/source/Reuters)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230604181350/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nepal-king-idUSISL5996320080529) from the original on 2023-06-04. Retrieved 2020-12-01.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** [Constitution of Tonga](https://parliament.gov.to/constitution1.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20081119232721/http://parliament.gov.to/constitution1.htm) 2008-11-19 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), s. 61

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Liechtenstein_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Liechtenstein_27-1) ["Liechtenstein prince wins powers"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2853991.stm). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 2003-03-16. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20151215091943/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2853991.stm) from the original on 2015-12-15. Retrieved 2015-10-26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Osborn, Andrew (17 March 2003). ["European prince wins new powers"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/17/andrewosborn). *The Guardian*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240320073725/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/17/andrewosborn) from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Henrik Zahle; Pieter Van Dijk; Jean-Claude Scholsem (16 December 2002). ["On the amendments to the constitution of Liechtenstein proposed by the Princely House of Liechtenstein"](http://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2002)032-e). *venice.coe.int*. Strasbourg: [Venice Commission](/source/Venice_Commission). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200228150407/http://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2002)032-e) from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BXVI-MP_30-0)** Benedict XVI (11 June 2007). [De aliquibus mutationibus in normis de electione Romani Pontificis](https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/motu_proprio/documents/hf_ben-xvi_motu-proprio_20070611_de-electione_lt.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171222062902/http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/la/motu_proprio/documents/hf_ben-xvi_motu-proprio_20070611_de-electione.html) 22 December 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) (in Latin). *[Motu proprio](/source/Motu_proprio)*. Vatican City: Vatican Publishing House.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BBC-BXVI_31-0)** ["Pope alters voting for successor"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6242466.stm) . *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 26 June 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-factbook_32-0)** ["Holy See (Vatican City)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220126204237/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/). *CIA—The World Factbook*. 22 September 2021. Archived from [the original](https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/) on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-citizenship_33-0)** ["Law on citizenship, residence and access"](https://www.vaticanstate.va/phocadownload/leggi-decreti/Leggesullacittadinanzalaresidenzaelaccesso.pdf) (PDF) (in Italian). Vatican City State. 22 February 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220717184754/https://www.vaticanstate.va/phocadownload/leggi-decreti/Leggesullacittadinanzalaresidenzaelaccesso.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-brunei_34-0)** Government of Brunei. ["Prime Minister"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111007033949/http://www.pmo.gov.bn/pmo1/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=82). *The Royal Ark*. Office of the Prime Minister. Archived from [the original](http://www.pmo.gov.bn/pmo1/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=82) on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-UAE_monarchs_35-6) Walters, Timothy; Barwind, Jack A. (January 2004). "Media and Modernity in the United Arab Emirates: Searching for the Beat of a Different Drummer". *Free Speech Yearbook*. **41** (1): 151–163. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/08997225.2004.10556311](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08997225.2004.10556311). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [108530356](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108530356). Seven absolute monarchs exercise political power over a federation established in 1971.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Simelane, H.S. (2005), "Swaziland: Mswati III, Reign of", in Shillington, Kevin (ed.), *Encyclopedia of African history*, vol. 3, Fitzroy Dearborn, pp. 1528–30, 9781579584559

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah dies"](https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30945324). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*. 23 January 2015. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150122233542/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30945324) from the original on 22 January 2015. Retrieved 23 January 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Sultan Qaboos Centre for Islamic Culture. ["About H.M the Sultan"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120118223700/http://sqcic.gov.om/HM.html). Government of Oman, Diwan of the Royal Court. Archived from [the original](http://sqcic.gov.om/HM.html) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Nyrop, Richard F (2008). [*Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BPX0h_wbFtEC). Wildside Press LLC. p. 341. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4344-6210-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4344-6210-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** ["'God chose this day' – Catholics around the world mourn Pope Francis"](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c5y656415lzo). *www.bbc.com*. 2025-04-21. Retrieved 2025-04-21.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Cavendish78_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Cavendish78_41-1) Cavendish, Marshall (2007). [*World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula*](https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78). Marshall Cavendish. p. [78](https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7614-7571-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7571-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gerhard_42-0)** Robbers, Gerhard (2007). *Encyclopedia of world constitutions, Volume 1*. Facts On File. p. 791. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8160-6078-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6078-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** ["Qatar elections to be held in 2013 - Emir"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15537725). *BBC News*. 1 November 2011. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120106200756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15537725) from the original on 2012-01-06. Retrieved 27 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** The Economist Intelligence Unit. ["The Economist Democracy Index 2010"](http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf) (PDF). *The Economist*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180606141853/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 6 June 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-vdem_dataset_45-0)** Coppedge, Michael (2021), [*V-Dem Dataset 2021*](https://www.v-dem.net/dsarchive.html), Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.23696/VDEMDS21](https://doi.org/10.23696%2FVDEMDS21), retrieved 2025-07-31

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** ["Oman: Freedom in the World 2020 Country Report"](https://freedomhouse.org/country/oman/freedom-world/2020).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Mettam, Roger. *Power and Faction in Louis XIV's France*, 1991.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Bouwsma, William J., in Kimmel, Michael S. *Absolutism and Its Discontents: State and Society in Seventeenth-Century France and England*. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988, 15

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** [Domat, Jean](/source/Jean_Domat) (18 April 2009). ["On Defense of Absolute Monarchy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20201028234633/https://symposium.cornellcollege.edu/2009/04/18/jean-domat-on-defense-of-absolute-monarchy/). Cornell College Student Symposium. Mount Vernon, IA: [Cornell College](/source/Cornell_College). Archived from [the original](http://symposium.cornellcollege.edu/2009/04/18/jean-domat-on-defense-of-absolute-monarchy/) on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2015.

## Further reading

- [Anderson, Perry](/source/Perry_Anderson). (1961, 1974). *Lineages of the Absolutist State*. London: Verso.

- Beloff, Max. *The Age of Absolutism 1660–1815*.

- [Blum, Jerome](/source/Jerome_Blum), et al. (1970). *The European World*, vol 1, pp 267–466.

- [Blum, Jerome](/source/Jerome_Blum), et al. (1951). *[Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century](/source/Lord_and_Peasant_in_Russia_from_the_Ninth_to_the_Nineteenth_Century)*. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

- Kimmel, Michael S. (1988). *Absolutism and Its Discontents: State and society in seventeenth-century France and England*. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

- Méttam, Roger. (1988). *Power and Faction in Louis XIV's France*. New York: Blackwell Publishers.

- Miller, John (ed.) (1990). *Absolutism in Seventeenth-Century Europe*. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

- Wilson, Peter H. (2000). *Absolutism in Central Europe*. New York: Routledge.

- Zmohra, Hillay. (2001). *Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the State in Europe – 1300–1800*. New York: Routledge.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Absolute monarchy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.