# 1440

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The [Printing press](/source/Printing_press) is invented around 1440 by [Johannes Gutenberg](/source/Johannes_Gutenberg), rapidly changing Europe.

Calendar year

Years Millennium 2nd millennium Centuries 14th century 15th century 16th century Decades 1420s 1430s 1440s 1450s 1460s Years 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 v t e

1440 by topic Arts and science Architecture Art Leaders Political entities State leaders Religious leaders Birth and death categories Births – Deaths Establishments and disestablishments categories Establishments – Disestablishments Art and literature 1440 in poetry v t e

1440 in various calendars Gregorian calendar 1440 MCDXL Ab urbe condita 2193 Armenian calendar 889 ԹՎ ՊՁԹ Assyrian calendar 6190 Balinese saka calendar 1361–1362 Bengali calendar 846–847 Berber calendar 2390 English Regnal year 18 Hen. 6 – 19 Hen. 6 Buddhist calendar 1984 Burmese calendar 802 Byzantine calendar 6948–6949 Chinese calendar 己未年 (Earth Goat) 4137 or 3930 — to — 庚申年 (Metal Monkey) 4138 or 3931 Coptic calendar 1156–1157 Discordian calendar 2606 Ethiopian calendar 1432–1433 Hebrew calendar 5200–5201 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1496–1497 - Shaka Samvat 1361–1362 - Kali Yuga 4540–4541 Holocene calendar 11440 Igbo calendar 440–441 Iranian calendar 818–819 Islamic calendar 843–844 Japanese calendar Eikyō 12 (永享１２年) Javanese calendar 1355–1356 Julian calendar 1440 MCDXL Korean calendar 3773 Minguo calendar 472 before ROC 民前472年 Nanakshahi calendar −28 Thai solar calendar 1982–1983 Tibetan calendar ས་མོ་ལུག་ལོ་ (female Earth-Sheep) 1566 or 1185 or 413 — to — ལྕགས་ཕོ་སྤྲེ་ལོ་ (male Iron-Monkey) 1567 or 1186 or 414

**1440** ([MCDXL](/source/Roman_numerals)) was a [leap year starting on Friday](/source/Leap_year_starting_on_Friday) of the [Julian calendar](/source/Julian_calendar), the 1440th year of the [Common Era](/source/Common_Era) (CE) and *[Anno Domini](/source/Anno_Domini)* (AD) designations, the 440th year of the [2nd millennium](/source/2nd_millennium), the 40th year of the [15th century](/source/15th_century), and the 1st year of the [1440s](/source/1440s) decade. As of the start of 1440, the Gregorian calendar was 9 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which was the dominant calendar of the time.

Calendar year

## Events

### January–March

- [January 6](/source/January_6) – [Ludovico](/source/Louis%2C_Duke_of_Savoy) becomes the new [Duke of Savoy](/source/Counts_and_dukes_of_Savoy) upon the abdication of his father [Amadeus VIII](/source/Amadeus_VIII%2C_Duke_of_Savoy).[1]

- [January 8](/source/January_8) – Seventeen new Roman Catholic Cardinals are added to the College of Cardinals afer having been appointed by Pope Eugene IV on December 18.[2]

- [February 21](/source/February_21) – The [Prussian Confederation](/source/Prussian_Confederation) is proposed as an opposition to the [Teutonic Knights](/source/Teutonic_Knights) at a meeting in [Elbing](/source/Elbl%C4%85g) by nobles from the cities of [Culm](/source/Che%C5%82mno), Elbing, [Thorn](/source/Toru%C5%84), [Danzig](/source/Gda%C5%84sk), [Braunsberg](/source/Braniewo), [Königsberg](/source/Kaliningrad), and [Kneiphof](/source/Knipawa). The delegates agree to hold a larger meeting on March 14 at [Marienwerder](/source/Kwidzyn).[3]

- [February 22](/source/February_22) – Four months after the death of [King Albert of Hungary](/source/Albert_II_of_Germany), his son, [Ladislaus the Posthumous](/source/Ladislaus_the_Posthumous), is born at [Komárom](/source/Kom%C3%A1rom) (modern-day Komárno in Slovakia) to Albert's widow, [Elisabeth](/source/Elizabeth_of_Luxembourg), regent for the vacant throne. Elizabeth argues to the Hungarian nobles that Ladislaus should be elected as the rightful successor to King Albert, and that she should serve as the boy's regent.[4]

- [February 26](/source/February_26) – Ibrahim II becomes the [Bey of Candar](/source/Candar_dynasty), a monarchy on the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea) that encompasses 10 modern-day Turkish provinces, upon the death of his father, Mubariz al-Din Isfendiyar, in the capital, [Sinop](/source/Sinop%2C_Turkey).[5]

- [February](/source/February)–[June](/source/June) – The [Praguerie](/source/Praguerie), an uprising by the French nobility against King [Charles VII](/source/Charles_VII_of_France).

- [March 8](/source/March_8) – Despite the birth of a posthumous son of the late King Albert V, the Hungarian nobles vote to elect King Vladislaus III of Poland as the new King of Hungary.[6]

- [March 14](/source/March_14) – The [Prussian Confederation](/source/Prussian_Confederation) is formed by 53 nobles and clergy, representing 19 Prussian cities, who meet at [Elbing](/source/Elbl%C4%85g) to form an opposition to the [Teutonic Knights](/source/Teutonic_Knights).

- [March 20](/source/March_20) – [Sigismund Kęstutaitis](/source/Sigismund_K%C4%99stutaitis), the [Grand Duke of Lithuania](/source/List_of_Lithuanian_monarchs#Grand_Duke), is assassinated at his residence at the [Trakai Peninsula Castle](/source/Trakai_Peninsula_Castle) by supporters of his rival, Svitraglia.[7]

### April–June

- [April 9](/source/April_9) – [Christopher of Bavaria](/source/Christopher_of_Bavaria) is elected [King of Denmark](/source/King_of_Denmark).

- [April](/source/April) – Ottoman Sultan [Murad II](/source/Murad_II) begins the [siege](/source/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1440)) of [Belgrade](/source/Belgrade), at this time part of the [Kingdom of Hungary](/source/Kingdom_of_Hungary) following the conquest of Serbia. The fortress is heavily damaged, but the defenders' use of [artillery](/source/Artillery) prevents the [Turks](/source/Ottoman_Empire) from capturing the city, and the siege ends after six months.

- [May 4](/source/May_4) – [Metrophanes II](/source/Metrophanes_II_of_Constantinople), Bishop of Cyzicus, is appointed by the Byzantine Emperor [John VIII Palaiologos](/source/John_VIII_Palaiologos) as the new [Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople](/source/List_of_ecumenical_patriarchs_of_Constantinople), leader of the Eastern Orthodox Church, to succeed [Joseph II](/source/Joseph_II_of_Constantinople), who had died in 1439.

- [May 15](/source/May_15) – [Elizabeth of Luxembourg](/source/Elizabeth_of_Luxembourg), regent for the vacant throne of Hungary, has her infant son, [Ladislaus the Posthumous](/source/Ladislaus_the_Posthumous), crowned king at [Székesfehérvár](/source/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r) with the stolen [Crown of Saint Stephen](/source/Holy_Crown_of_Hungary).

- [June 29](/source/June_29) - The League of Italian States (Florence, Venice and the Papal States) defeats the army of the [Duchy of Milan](/source/Duchy_of_Milan) at the [Battle of Anghiari](/source/Battle_of_Anghiari) in [Tuscany](/source/Tuscany).[8] - [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/source/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon) is proclaimed as the new [Grand Duke of Lithuania](/source/List_of_Lithuanian_monarchs) by the [Lithuanian Council of Lords](/source/Lithuanian_Council_of_Lords).[9] - The [Diet of Hungary](/source/Diet_of_Hungary) approves a resolution declaring the coronation of Ladislaus as King of Hungary to be invalid, declaring that "the crowning of kings is always dependent on the will of the kingdom's inhabitants, in whose consent both the effectiveness and the force of the crown reside".[10]

### July–September

- [July 11](/source/July_11) – [John V, Duke of Brittany](/source/John_V%2C_Duke_of_Brittany), signs a neutrality agreement with the Kingdom of England, promising not to give shelter to England's enemies in the ongoing English occupation of western France.[11]

- [July 17](/source/July_17) – [Wladyslaw III](/source/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland), King of Poland and Supreme Duke of Lithuania, is crowned as [King László I of Hungary](/source/List_of_Hungarian_monarchs) at the [Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary](/source/Basilica_of_the_Assumption_of_the_Blessed_Virgin_Mary%2C_Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r) in [Székesfehérvár](/source/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r).[12]

- [July 24](/source/July_24) – At [Basel](/source/Basel) in Switzerland, [Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy](/source/Amadeus_VIII%2C_Duke_of_Savoy) is crowned as "Pope Felix V" by Roman Catholic cardinals of the [Council of Basel](/source/Council_of_Florence#Rump_Council_of_Basel) who had voted to depose [Pope Eugene IV](/source/Pope_Eugene_IV) as leader of the Roman Catholic Church.[13] As Felix V, he is designated in Vatican history as [the last "antipope"](/source/Antipope#List_of_historical_antipopes). He remains in Basel and never travels to Rome to assume the papacy; in 1449, after the death of Eugene IV, Amadeus assumes an oath of loyalty to Eugene's successor, [Pope Nicholas V](/source/Pope_Nicholas_V).

- [August 31](/source/August_31) – In France, the [Siege of Tartas](/source/Siege_of_Tartas) is commenced in [Gascony](/source/Gascony) by troops of the Kingdom of England and the English-controlled [Duchy of Gascony](/source/Duchy_of_Gascony) in an attempt to oust a French supporter of King Charles VII, [Charles II d'Albret](/source/Charles_II_d'Albret), who has taken control of Tartas. The siege lasts for almost two years before being abandoned by the English.[14][15]

- [September 10](/source/September_10) – A rebellion in Hungary, instigated by [Ladislaus Garai](/source/Ladislaus_Garai) against the newly elected [King Laszlo](/source/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_III_of_Poland) (who is also king of Poland), is ended when Garai's army is annihilated in a battle at [Bátaszék](/source/B%C3%A1tasz%C3%A9k) by the troops of General [János Hunyadi](/source/John_Hunyadi) and of [Nicholas of Ilok](/source/Nicholas_of_Ilok), [ruler of Croatia](/source/Ban_of_Croatia).[16]

- [September 12](/source/September_12) – [Eton College](/source/Eton_College), one of the most famous boarding schools for boys in England, is founded by [King Henry VI](/source/Henry_VI_of_England) as "Kynge's College of Our Ladye of Eton besyde Windesore".

- [September 13](/source/September_13) - [Christopher of Bavaria](/source/Christopher_of_Bavaria), King Christopher III of Denmark, is formally enthroned as [King Kristofer I of Sweden](/source/List_of_Swedish_monarchs), bringing an end to the regency of [Karl Knutsson Bonde](/source/Charles_VIII_of_Sweden). - Breton lord [Gilles de Rais](/source/Gilles_de_Rais) is arrested at his castle at [Machecoul](/source/Machecoul) after an accusation of murdering children is brought against him by the [Bishop of Nantes](/source/Bishop_of_Nantes).[17]

- [September 21](/source/September_21) – The [Burgraviate of Nuremberg](/source/Burgraviate_of_Nuremberg), a member nation-state of the [Holy Roman Empire](/source/Holy_Roman_Empire), comes to an end after more than three centuries when the two sons of the last Burgrave, [Frederick V](/source/Frederick_V%2C_Burgrave_of_Nuremberg), divide the territory into two separate principalities. [Frederick VI](/source/Frederick_II%2C_Elector_of_Brandenburg) (who is also Elector of Brandenburg) becomes the ruler of the [Principality of Ansbach](/source/Principality_of_Ansbach), while [John III](/source/John_III%2C_Burgrave_of_Nuremberg) becomes the ruler of the [Principality of Bayreuth](/source/Principality_of_Bayreuth)

### October–December

- [October 22](/source/October_22) – [Gilles de Rais](/source/Gilles_de_Rais) confesses and is sentenced to death on a conviction of murdering at least 140 children. He is hanged on October 26 and his corpse is then burned at the stake.[18]

- [November 2](/source/November_2) – The [Old Zurich War](/source/Old_Zurich_War) begins as the [Canton of Zurich](/source/Canton_of_Zurich), led by the [burgomaster](/source/Burgomaster) [Rudolf Stüssi](/source/Rudolf_St%C3%BCssi), is expelled from the [Swiss Confederation](/source/Old_Swiss_Confederacy) (*Corpus helveticum*) by the leaders of the other [cantons](/source/Swiss_canton) (Bern, Glarus, Lucerne, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Uri and Zug). Stüssi makes an alliance with [Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor](/source/Frederick_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor) and a war which will last more than five years begins.

- [November 3](/source/November_3) – [Charles, Duke of Orléans](/source/Charles_I%2C_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans), is released from incarceration in England, 25 years after he had been taken as a prisoner of war at the [Battle of Agincourt](/source/Battle_of_Agincourt) in [1415](/source/1415). His freedom is gained after negotiations made by two of his former enemies, the Duke of Burgundy and the Queen of Portugal, and payment of a ransom of 80,000 gold coins. The Duke of Orleans, now aged 46, returns to French soil after more than a quarter of a century in England.[19]

- [November 24](/source/November_24) – The "[Black Dinner](/source/Clan_Douglas#Black_Dinner)" takes place at [Edinburgh Castle](/source/Edinburgh_Castle) as Lord Chancellor of Scotland [William Crichton](/source/William_Crichton%2C_1st_Lord_Crichton) conspires with the [James Douglas](/source/James_Douglas%2C_7th_Earl_of_Douglas), uncle of the late [Archibald Douglas](/source/Archibald_Douglas%2C_5th_Earl_of_Douglas) (who had served as regent for King James II) to invite Archibald's two sons, 16-year old [William Douglas, 6th Earl of Douglas](/source/William_Douglas%2C_6th_Earl_of_Douglas) and David Douglas to dinner with King James. At the dinner, the two boys are taken hostage and murdered, the members of [Clan Douglas](/source/Clan_Douglas) besiege the castle, and James Douglas inherits the Earldom.[20]

- [December 1](/source/December_1) – Representatives of the Swiss canton of Zurich sign the Peace of Lucerne, bringing a temporary halt to the [Old Zurich War](/source/Old_Zurich_War).

### Date unknown

- [Itzcóatl](/source/Itzc%C3%B3atl), [Aztec](/source/Aztec) ruler of [Tenochtitlan](/source/Tenochtitlan), dies and is succeeded by [Moctezuma I](/source/Moctezuma_I) *([Moctezuma Ilhuicamina](/source/Moctezuma_Ilhuicamina))*.

- [Lorenzo Valla](/source/Lorenzo_Valla)'s *De falso credita et ementita Constantini Donatione declamatio* demonstrates that the [Donation of Constantine](/source/Donation_of_Constantine) is a forgery.

- Sir Richard Molyneux is appointed constable of [Liverpool Castle](/source/Liverpool_Castle), in [England](/source/Kingdom_of_England).

- The [Ming dynasty](/source/Ming_dynasty) government of [China](/source/China) begins a decade-long series of issuing harsh edicts towards those who illegally mine [silver](/source/Silver), the latter known as 'miner bandits' (*kuangzei*), a trend begun in [1438](/source/1438). The government wants to cap the amount of silver circulating into the market, as more grain taxes are converted into silver taxes. The government establishes community night watches known as 'watches and tithings' (*baojia*), who ensure that [illegal mining](/source/Illegal_mining) activities are brought to a halt. However, these are desperate measures, as illegal silver mining continues to thrive as a dangerous but lucrative venture.

- Uwaifiokun, [Oba of Benin](/source/Oba_of_Benin), is killed by his brother, the Prince Ogun, who succeeds him as [Ewuare I](/source/Ewuare).

- [Zhu Quan](/source/Zhu_Quan) writes the *[Cha Pu](/source/Cha_Pu)* ("Tea Manual") in [China](/source/Ming_dynasty).

## Births

- [January 22](/source/January_22): [Ivan III of Russia](/source/Ivan_III_of_Russia) (d. [1505](/source/1505))

- [February 13](/source/February_13): [Hartmann Schedel](/source/Hartmann_Schedel), German physician (d. [1514](/source/1514))

- *date unknown*: [Clara Tott](/source/Clara_Tott), German court singer (d. [1520](/source/1520))

## Deaths

- [March 9](/source/March_9): [Frances of Rome](/source/Frances_of_Rome), Italian [Benedictine](/source/Benedictine) nun and saint (b. [1384](/source/1384))

- [March 20](/source/March_20): [Sigismund Kęstutaitis](/source/Sigismund_I_of_Lithuania), [Grand Duke of Lithuania](/source/Grand_Duke_of_Lithuania) (b. [1365](/source/1365))

- [April 2](/source/April_2): [Giovanni Vitelleschi](/source/Giovanni_Vitelleschi), Italian [Roman Catholic](/source/Roman_Catholic) bishop and soldier

- [April 6](/source/April_6): [Henry Wardlaw](/source/Henry_Wardlaw), Scottish church leader

- [September 20](/source/September_20): [Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg](/source/Frederick_I%2C_Elector_of_Brandenburg) (b. [1371](/source/1371))

- [September 30](/source/September_30): [Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn](/source/Reginald_Grey%2C_3rd_Baron_Grey_de_Ruthyn), English soldier and politician

- [October 12](/source/October_12): [Ginevra d'Este](/source/Ginevra_d'Este) (b. [1419](/source/1419))

- [October 26](/source/October_26): [Gilles de Rais](/source/Gilles_de_Rais), French lord (b. c. [1405](/source/1405))

- [November 13](/source/November_13): [Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmoreland](/source/Joan_Beaufort%2C_Countess_of_Westmoreland)

- *date unknown*: - [Itzcóatl](/source/Itzc%C3%B3atl), Aztec *[Tlatoani](/source/Tlatoani)* (ruler) of [Tenochtitlan](/source/Tenochtitlan)[21] - Uwaifiokun, [Oba of Benin](/source/Oba_of_Benin)

		- Saint [Frances of Rome](/source/Frances_of_Rome)

		- [Sigismund Kęstutaitis](/source/Sigismund_I_of_Lithuania)

		- [Giovanni Vitelleschi](/source/Giovanni_Vitelleschi)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["Dinastia Casa Savoia"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070418105017/http://www.contironco.it/savoia/indice.htm). Archived from [the original](http://www.contironco.it/savoia/indice.htm) on April 18, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [Miranda, Salvador](/source/Salvador_Miranda_(historian)). ["Consistories for the creation of Cardinals 12th Century (1099-1198): Eugenius IV (1431-1447)"](https://cardinals.fiu.edu/consistories-xv.htm#EugeniusIV). *The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church*. [Florida International University](/source/Florida_International_University). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [53276621](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53276621).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Górski, Karol (1949). *Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych* (in Polish). [Poznań](/source/Pozna%C5%84): Instytut Zachodni. p. xxxi.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Pálosfalvi, Tamás (2002). "V. László". In Kristó, Gyula (ed.). *Magyarország vegyes házi királyai*[The Kings of Various Dynasties of Hungary] (in Hungarian). Szukits Könyvkiadó. pp. 139–140. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [963-9441-58-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-9441-58-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Yücel, M. Yaşar (1 May 1964). ["Candar-oğlu Çelebi İsfendiyar Bey 1392-1439"](https://doi.org/10.1501%2FTarar_0000000282). *Ankara University History Research Journal* (in Turkish). **2** (2): 157–174. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1501/Tarar_0000000282](https://doi.org/10.1501%2FTarar_0000000282).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Solymosi, László; Körmendi, Adrienne (1981). "A középkori magyar állam virágzása és bukása, 1301–1526 [The Heyday and Fall of the Medieval Hungarian State, 1301–1526]". In Solymosi, László (ed.). *Magyarország történeti kronológiája, I: a kezdetektől 1526-ig*[Historical Chronology of Hungary, Volume I: From the Beginning to 1526] (in Hungarian). Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 257. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [963-05-2661-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/963-05-2661-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Dundulis, Bronius (2004). "Žygimantas I Kęstutaitis". In Spečiūnas, Vytautas (ed.). *Lietuvos valdovai (XIII–XVIII a.): enciklopedinis žinynas* (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. pp. 94–96. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [5-420-01535-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-420-01535-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["The Battle of Anghiari"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140103180717/http://www.anghiari.it/new-english/english/battaglia_anghiari.asp). Archived from [the original](http://www.anghiari.it/new-english/english/battaglia_anghiari.asp) on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 6 February 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** J. Kiaupienė, *Valdžios krizės pabaiga ir Kazimieras Jogailaitis* (The End of the Government Crisis and Kazimieras Jogailaitis), (Vilnius: Electronic Publishing House, 2003)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Engel, Pál (2001). *The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526*. I.B. Tauris Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-86064-061-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86064-061-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Wagner, John A. (2006). [*Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War*](https://web.archive.org/web/20180716235643/http://dl.lilibook.ir/2016/03/Encyclopedia-of-the-Hundred-Years-War.pdf) (PDF). [Westport](/source/Westport%2C_Connecticut): Greenwood Press. p. 183. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-32736-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32736-0). Archived from [the original](http://dl.lilibook.ir/2016/03/Encyclopedia-of-the-Hundred-Years-War.pdf) (PDF) on 2018-07-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Ágoston, Gábor (2023). [*The Last Muslim Conquest. The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4zS0EAAAQBAJ). Princeton: University Press. pp. 64–65. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780691205397](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691205397).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["Felice V: Amedeo VIII diSavoi"](https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/it/articles/012614/2006-04-10/), by Bernard Andenmatten, in *Dizionario storico della Svizzera* (2006)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** [*Charles VII at Tartas*](http://journeedetartas.blogspot.com.br/), 30 June 2009, retrieved 16 February 2018

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Piraud, Claude-Henri (2010). ["Les armistices de 1441 en Guyenne"](https://www.academia.edu/13216649). *Bulletin de la Société historique et archéologique du Périgord* (in French). **137**: 34. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1141-135X](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1141-135X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Museranu, Camil (2018). [*John Hunyadi. Defender of Christendom*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4BAjEAAAQBAJ). Las Vegas: Histria Books. pp. 73–74. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781592111152](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781592111152).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [Bataille, Georges](/source/Georges_Bataille) (1959), *Procès de Gilles de Rais. Documents précédés d'une introduction de Georges Bataille* (in French), Paris: Club français du livre, p. 158

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Benedetti, Jean (1971). *Gilles de Rais*. New York: Stein and Day. pp. 182–190. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8128-1450-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8128-1450-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Goldstone, Nancy (2013). *The Maid and the Queen: The Secret History of Joan of Arc*. Phoenix Paperbacks, London. pp. 225–226.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** ["Douglas", in *Scottish Clan & Family Encyclopedia*](https://archive.org/details/collinsscottishc0000wayg/page/384/mode/2up?q=1440&view=theater), George Way and Romilly Squire, eds., (Glasgow: HarperCollinsPublishers, 1994) pp. 384–385

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["Itzcóatl, 'Serpiente de obsidiana' (1427–1440)"](https://arqueologiamexicana.mx/mexico-antiguo/itzcoatl-serpiente-de-obsidiana-1427-1440) ["Itzcóatl, 'Obsidian Snake' (1427–1440)"]. *Arqueologia Mexicana* (in Spanish). July 4, 2016. Retrieved June 6, 2019.

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